Ecological Factors in Land Use

Ecology fundamentals: Landscape ecology Vegetation

Urban Watershed Forestry Inventory and analysis: e.g., CITYgreen Wetlands Protection and Mitigation Coastal Zone Management Habitat fundamentals: cores and corridors Habitat Conservation Plans (ESA)

Wetlands and Coastal Ecology

Wildlife

Landscape Ecology Principles

Matrix is the land cover that is dominant and interconnected over majority of land surface (e.g., forest, agriculture, urban). Patch is a nonlinear polygon area less abundant than and different from matrix. Corridor is a linear or elongated patch that links other patches in the matrix. Mosaic is a collection of patches none of which are dominant enough to be interconnected throughout landscape.

Urban Ecology

Urban ecosystems are different: coupled and interdependent human-ecological systems Urbanization is key driver of ecosystem change Urbanization favors synanthropic species and biodiversity peaks at intermediate levels on the urban gradient Urban landscapes can best be characterized by functions, processes and patterns, and gradients, patches, networks, and hierarchies

Urban ecology

Marina Alberti, 2008

Function, process, Pattern

Human system Ecological system

Aquatic biodiversity Stream health Bird Diversity

Six planning principles for Urban Ecosystems

Maximize resilience Maintain diverse development patterns Integrate and minimize resource use and diversity resource supplies Create flexibility in policies that mimic natural processes Learn by creating opportunities for experimentation Develop scenarios and employ adaptation

Benefits of Vegetation in Urban Areas

Environmental Control Erosion Control Slope Stability Runoff Control Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Dune Stabilization Noise Attenuation Air Quality Improvement Glare and Reflection Reduction Micro-Climate Control Temperature Reduction (counters urban heat island effect) Wind Control Shading Architectural and Aesthetic Benefits Articulation of Space Natural Aesthetics Ecological Benefits Wildlife Habitat

Economic, Environmental, and Community Benefits of Trees

Watershed Benefits of Forest Cover

Street Tree Canopy

Forested Riparian Buffer

Buffer zone 1 and 2 width should be 30% of the active floodplain width. Minimum buffer width for floodplains greater than 333 feet is 100 feet; for those less than 333 feet, 45 feet; for floodplains on one-side only, 60 feet; and for no floodplain, 35 feet

Forest Canopy Loss, Atlanta Metro, 1974 to 1996

Tree loss Charlotte/ Mecklenburg County, NC, 1985-2008

Typical Urban Forestry Program Goals

Maximum tree cover. Maintain trees in a healthy condition Maintain an optimal level of age and species diversity. Promote conservation of tree resources. Select, situate, and maintain street trees appropriately Centralize tree management under a forester/arborist Promote cost-effective management of the urban forest. Foster community support for the local urban forestry program Encourage good tree management on private properties. Facilitate the resolution of tree-related conflicts

Urban Forest Tree Inventory

Sampling Inventory

Dot Grid Overlay and ImageTool Methods for Estimated Forest Canopy.

http://www.urbanforestmap.org/

Urban Watershed Forestry

Integration of

Urban forestry: management of the urban forest for community, economic and environmental benefits Watershed planning: sound land and resource management to improve water resources Part 1: Methods for increasing Forest Cover Part 2: Conserving and Planting Trees at Dev. Sites Part 3: Urban Tree Planting Guide

See Urban Watershed Forestry Manual, 2005

Principles of Urban Watershed Forestry

Forest cover is the highest and best use of land in a watershed for water, air, habitat & heat island benefits. Urban forests are a dynamic mosaic of forest, turf, and impervious cover heavily stressed by air pollution, invasive species, and construction practices The constant changes in watershed forests must be analyzed over time to track gains and losses Management techniques are needed to improve urban forest diversity, structure, canopy, maturity, species, and ecosystems Existing forest tracts should be evaluated for priority as permanent conservation Forest loss during land development can be reduced by forest conservation tools Forest cover can be increased and canopy enhanced by reforestation on public and private land including built environment infrastructure Land use plans should contain explicit goals for watershed forest cover and impervious surface Urban watershed forestry should be integrated into watershed restoration

Goals of Urban Watershed Forestry

Protect undeveloped forests from human encroachment and impacts of land development through planning techniques, regulatory tools and incentives Enhance the health, condition, and function of urban forest fragments including hydrology, habitat, and tree growth Reforest open land through active replanting and regeneration to increase forest canopy & cover to regain forest functions and benefits

Planning Methods for Increasing Forest Cover in a Watershed

1.

2.
3.

4.

5. 6.

Conduct a Watershed Leaf-Out Analysis Develop forest cover goals and objectives Identify existing forest and reforestation opportunities Conduct a field assessment of existing forest and reforestation opportunities Prioritize existing forest and reforestation Develop recommendations for meeting forest cover goals

1. Leaf-Out Analysis
1.1 Estimate the Distribution of Current Land Cover in the Watershed 1.2 Identify Protected and Unprotected Lands in the Watershed 1.3 Determine Whether Parcels are Developed or Undeveloped 1.4 Determine Allowable Zoning on Undeveloped Land 1.5 Summarize Watershed Data 1.6 Acquire Forest Cover Coefficients 1.7 Estimate Future Forest Cover in the Watershed.

1.5 Summarize Watershed Data

1.6 Acquire Forest Cover Coefficients

Effect of forest conservation regulations at a development site

1.7 Estimating forest cover: Assumptions

1. All developed land will remain in its current land cover.
2. All protected land will remain in its current land cover. 3. All impervious cover will remain impervious (e.g., no removal of pavement). 4. All land that is unprotected and undeveloped is considered buildable and is subject to future development under allowable zoning. 5. Full buildout of the watershed will occur based on allowable zoning (e.g., no re-zoning). 6. Future land cover of all buildable land can be estimated by applying the appropriate land cover coefficients for each zoning category. 7. The land cover coefficients chosen should reflect the current status of forestconservation regulations in the watershed.

1.5 Summarize Watershed Data

Planning Methods for Increasing Forest Cover in a Watershed

1.

2.
3.

4.

5. 6.

Conduct a Watershed Leaf-Out Analysis Develop forest cover goals and objectives Identify existing forest and reforestation opportunities Conduct a field assessment of existing forest and reforestation opportunities Prioritize existing forest and reforestation Develop recommendations for meeting forest cover goals

1.5 Summarize Watershed Data

Effect of Conservation and Reforestation on Forest Cover

Wetlands

Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For purposes of this classification wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically ,the land supports predominantly hydrophytes, (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil, and (3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each year.

Wetland Types
Marine Wetland Estuarine Wetland Riverine Wetland Lacustrine Wetland Palustrine Wetland

Wetland Inventory: true color aerial photo: A: field; B: forest; C: wetland/pond

Benefits of Wetlands

Flood damage reduction Shoreline erosion control Water quality improvement Groundwater recharge Healthy fisheries Ecological benefits to wildlife and biodiversity Recreation, aesthetics, education, and research

http://www.fws.gov/wetlands/Data/Mapper.html

Wetlands Loss (and Gain) 1950s-2004

Wetlands Gained and Lost, 1998-2004

Freshwater Ponds Gains

A) Largely undeveloped area wherevegetated wetland predominates.

B) Sparse development. Surface waters have been channelized and retained in open water ponds.

C) Dense residential development. Surface waters are contained in artificial ponds and lakes.

Estuarine Emergent Wetland (Salt Marsh) Loss 1998-2004

Restoration - Returning a degraded or former wetland to as close to the pre-existing condition as possible. Enhancement - Increasing one or more of the functions performed by an existing wetland beyond what currently or previously existed in the wetland. There may be an accompanying decrease in other functions. Creation - Converting a non-wetland (either dry land or deep water) to a wetland.

Wetland Mitigation Banking

Coastal Areas of Concern: Marsh and Estuary Ecosystem

Coastal Areas of Concern: Barrier Island Dune Systems

Two Federal Programs

Coastal Zone Management Act 1972

Grants to states to develop CZM plans and implementing programs to manage coastal zone

Barrier Island Resources Act 1982

Elements of Coastal Zone Program

Regulatory element

Coastal setbacks Coastal construction control areas Shoreline stabilization regulations Access restrictions Habitat protection and other controls Permit tracking and enforcement Adopted plans Coastal land holdings Coastal land management and stewardship Coastal land acquisition program

Planning element

Coastal land management and acquisition element

Barrier Island Resources

Coastal barriers provide many free services that are foundations of a strong economy and healthy environment. They create the back-bay water quality needed to support productive and lucrative fisheries, offer habitat for migratory birds and many at-risk plants and animals, and are also popular vacation destinations and a boon to local economies. Developing coastal barriers, however, is risky business. They serve as the mainlands first line of defense against storm surges and hurricane winds. Aware of their risk and value, Congress adopted the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) in 1982. That law is the essence of free-market natural resource conservation; it in no way regulates how people can develop their land, but transfers the full cost from Federal taxpayers to the individuals who choose to build.

Coastal Barrier Resources Act 1982

Rapid pace of development spurred by federal subsidies like flood insurance 1/3 of coastal barrier islands developed, 1/3 protected, 1/3 undeveloped Identify and map 1/3 undeveloped make part of John H. Chaffee Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS) CBRS now includes 585 System units (1.3 million acres) and 271 units of protected areas (1.8 million acres) of land and associated aquatic habitat.

CBRS

In CBRS, private lands are available for development according to state and local rules, but no federal $$ are available. Without flood insurance and other federal support, most lands are left undeveloped, put into conservation easements.

CZMA and CBRS have helped but have not reflected impacts of climate change

Florida now trying to plan for 5 foot sea level rise www.geology.com Its not just the inundation by sea level rise but the exacerbation of coastal storms and storm surges www.chesapeakeadaptation.org www.csc.noaa.gov/slr/viwer/#