HYDRAULICS

OUTLINE
y What is Hydraulics? y Some applications of Hydraulics y Dimensions and Units y Properties of Fluid y Flow properties

What is Hydraulics?
y Matter exists in three states: Solid, Liquid and gas y Liquids and gases are called Fluids y Fluid mechanics: study of equilibrium and motion of fluids and the force interactions between the bodies with which they are in contact with y Hydraulics: branch of fluid mechanics which deals with mechanics of liquids (usually water in the context of Civil Engineering).

y There are two aspects of fluid mechanics which

make it different to solid mechanics:

y The nature of a fluid is much different to that of a solid y In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of

fluid without a beginning or end. In solids we only consider individual elements.

Some Applications of Hydraulics

y Hydraulics

provides the computational tools to a applications such as Design of :

y dams, y water distribution systems, y water conveyance structures, y water diversion structures, y hydropower development, y Flood protections, irrigation, y water and waste treatment plants,

methods and wide range of

.etc

Dimensions and Units

y Physical quantities are represented by

dimensions y Length {L}, time {T}, mass {M} and force {F} are of major importance in Hydraulics y Dimensions are classified as Basic and Derived y Basic dimensions represent the fundamental physical quantities such as Mass, Length, Time, Temperature, . y Combinations of two or more basic dimensions so arranged in such a way that express other physical quantities are termed Derived dimensions.

Basic SI units
Quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Temperature Luminous intensity Amount of substance Plane angle SI unit Meter Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin Candela Mole Radian symbol m kg s A oK Cd Mol rad

Derived Dimensions
Quantity Velocity Acceleration Force Pressure Energy Power Surface tension Momentum Dynamic Viscosity SI units Symbol m/s m/s2 N (kg m/s2) Pa (N/m2) J (N.m) W (J/s) N/m kg. m/s Pa. s

Newton Pascal Joule Watt

y Some common conversions

1m3 1ton 1ha

1000 l 1000 kg 10000 m2

Properties of fluids
y In contrast to solids, fluids lack the ability to resist deformation y As a result, its shape will change continuously as long as the force is applied y The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a surface. Definition A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously or flows, when subjected to shearing forces. Conversely y If a fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting (all forces must be perpendicular to the planes which the are acting).

y When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to one another. y When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities. y If fluid velocity is the same at every point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity. y Consider the flow in a pipe

Velocity profile in a pipe.

y Because particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different velocities there are shear forces in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are normally present in a moving fluid. y On the other hand, if a fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling with the same velocity, the velocity profile would look something like this:

Velocity profile in uniform flow

Fluids vs. Solids

y Behavior of solids and fluids under an applied force.

y For a solid the strain is a function of the applied

stress (provided that the elastic limit has not been reached). For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress. y The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and (if the elastic limit is not reached) the deformation disappears when the force is removed. y A fluid continues to flow for as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is removed.

y The following physical quantities out line the general properties of fluids which are of importance to the Civil Engineer. 1 Density and Specific Gravity y Density of a fluid (V), like any other substance is the mass per unit volume of the fluid.
m V y Water has a maximum density of V !

atmospheric pressure. y If the density of a fluid is multiplied by the gravitational acceleration, the specific weight (K) is obtained.
K ! Vg ! W V

1000 kg/m3 at 40C and

The unit of density in the S.I. system is kg/m3 and that of specific weight is N/m3.

2. Specific gravity (relative density) y is a pure number which denotes the ratio of the mass of the body to the mass of an equal volume of a substance taken as a standard. That standard density is that of a pure water at 4oC and atmospheric pressure.
Specific gravity of a substance , s ! V subs tan ce V water

3. Pressure y By definition pressure is force per unit area. As this area approaches a small value enclosing a point, the force is known as the pressure at that point.
P ! lim (F dF ! (Apo (A dA

Pressure in a fluid is given with respect to a reference value. When atmospheric pressure is used as a reference, pressure above the atmospheric value is called gauge pressure and that below it is called vaccum or subatmospheric pressure.

y All fluids exert pressure force on walls of their containers. Pressure doesn t have shear component, i.e., it always acts normal to the surface it is acting upon. The SI unit for pressure is N/m2 (Pa) or kN/m2 (kPa)
A
PA (Gauge) Gauge pressure

Atmospheric pressure Reference PB (Vaccum) Local atmospheric pressure PA (Absolute pressure) Vaccum

PB (Absolute pressure)

Abs. pressure

Absolute zero Reference

4. Vapor pressure (Reading Assignment)

y At a given temperature, vapor molecules escape from the surface of the liquid and at the same time vapor molecules condense on to the liquid surface. The vapor molecules exert pressure on the surface - vapor pressure y At equilibrium, the pressure exerted by the vapor molecules will be constant and is termed Saturated Vapor Pressure (Pv) y Boiling of liquid can occur at any temperature as long as the external pressure is less than or equal to the saturation vapor pressure. y When the liquid pressure is dropped below the vapor pressure due to a flow phenomenon, cavitation occurs.

Vapor pressure of water

5. Compressibility and bulk modulus y Theoretically all fluids are compressible when subjected to pressure increase. When a fluid is compressed its volume be decreases the amount being a function of the pressure applied and type of fluid (liquid or gas). The compressibility of a liquid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity which is given by
k! dP dv V

y where dP is the increase in pressure applied to a liquid of original volume V and resulting in a volume change of dV. y In most of the cases liquids are considered incompressible because the volume changes effected for a unit increase in pressure are practically negligible while gases are highly compressible.

6.Viscosity y Viscosity of a fluid is its most important property which indicates the resistance of the fluid to shear. Highly viscous fluids have less mobility than less viscous ones. y Viscosity is mainly due to cohesion and rate of transfer of molecular momentum. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with temperature. y In a liquid, the molecules are closely spaced and hence cohesion contributes more to the viscosity than does the momentum transfer. y As the temperature of the liquid increases the cohesive force between the molecules gets weaker and weaker and hence the viscosity decreases.

Newton's Law of Viscosity

Fluid element under a shear force

y y y

The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This area is given by The shear stress which is equal to force per unit area i.e. The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size of the angle J and is know as shear strain.

y In a solid shear strain, J, is constant for a fixed shear stress t.

In a fluid Jincreases for as long as t is applied - the fluid flows. y It has been found experimentally that the rate of shear strain (shear strain per unit time, J/time) is directly proportional to the shear stress. y If the particle at point E (in the above figure) moves under the shear stress to point E' and it takes time t to get there, it has moved the distance x. For small deformations we can write y shear strain
y Rate of shear strain

J x u ! ! ! t t .y y

y Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain then

y The term is the change in velocity with y, or the velocity gradient, and may be written in the differential form . y The constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity, Q, of the fluid, giving

y This is known as Newton's law of viscosity.

Newtonian / Non-Newtonian Fluids

y y y y

Even among fluids which are accepted as fluids there can be wide differences in behaviour under stress. Fluids obeying Newton's law where the value of Q is constant are known as Newtonian fluids. If Q is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on velocity gradient. This is true for most common fluids. Fluids in which the value of Q is not constant are known as non-Newtonian fluids. There are several categories of these, and they are outlined briefly below.

Ideal fluid: This is a fluid which is assumed to have no viscosity. This is a useful concept when theoretical solutions are being considered - it does help achieve some practically useful solutions

Dynamic viscosity (Q). It is the shear force per unit area required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance away. Unit = kg/m.s or N.s/m2 Poise (p) = 0.1 kg/m.s Kinematic viscosity ( ): defined as the ratio dynamic viscosity to mass density. Unit: m2/s Stokes (st) = 0.0001 m2/s

7. Surface Tension (W) y The cohesive forces between molecules down into a liquid are shared with all neighboring atoms. Those on the surface have no neighboring atoms above, and exhibit stronger attractive forces upon their nearest neighbors on the surface. This enhancement of the intermolecular attractive forces at the surface is called surface tension. Unit: N/m

y Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched membrane. Naturally, liquids tend to minimize their surface area and hence drops of liquid take spherical shape. The surface tension increases the internal pressure so as to balance the surface force.
(PTr 2 ! 2TrW (P ! 2W r

For a soap bubble having two free surfaces the relationship can be expressed as
(PTr 2 ! 2 * 2TrW 4W (P ! r

y 8 Capillarity y Capillarity is the ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the force of gravity. y It occurs when the adhesive intermolecular forces between the liquid and a solid are stronger than the cohesive intermolecular forces within the liquid. y The effect causes a concave meniscus to form where the liquid is in contact with a vertical surface.
The vertical componnent of Surface tension weight of the column = of water in the tube

2TRW (cosU ) ! KTR 2 h

2W cos U h! KR

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