Physical Layers Issues

Transmission Media

Transmission Media
Transmission environments:
Copper Fibre Air

Transmission media:
Electromagnetic waves
Radio waves Microwaves Infrared Laser light (including visible light)

Electric charge

Electric Networks
In these networks, copper wires are used to transmit an electric charge
In rare cases, aluminium, platinum or gold can be used instead of copper

A electric current is pushed through the wire in a controlled manner

In power cords, the amount of electricity is determined by how much the appliance requires In network wires/cables, the amount of electricity (or charge) can vary in a wave pattern, called a carrier wave

Electric Networks
All electrically charged objects generate electromagnetic fields (and interference):
N

Electric Media
One of the goals of electrostatic networks is to reduce the effect of electromagnetic interference There are several techniques, including:
Shielding around the cables/wires Twisting the wires within the cable

Electric Networks
Electric networks work by varying the electric charge of the wire in some way Techniques for varying signals is somewhat media-independent, and will be discussed separately

Electric Cables
A cable is a collection of wires
A wire is typically a single strand of copper, with a small protective coating around it

Two common types of cables used in networks are:

Coaxial cables:
Used by cable/satellite television, older Ethernet, 802 Token Bus networks

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP):

Used by newer Ethernet (4 pair), and telephone networks (2 or 3 pair)

Coaxial Cable
Outer Insulating Jacket Inner Insulating Layer Braided Metal Shield (Ground) Transmission Wire

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

Electromagnetic Networks
These fall into two common types:
Airwave transmission
Typically, this involves radio waves or microwaves

Optical transmission (or fibre optics)

The use of laser light passed/refracted through glass fibres

Airwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves are used (and varied) to represent binary 0 or 1

Airwave Transmission
A satellite might also be used to facilitate transmission over longer distances

Physics Primer: Reflection

An incidental wave of light approaching a reflective surface (e.g. silver) will bounce off the surface
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Reflective Optical Cable

reflective surface

This type of fibre optic cable is made of glass, with a highly reflective surface on the outside
This surface must be coated, to make it more reflective, which prevents significant light loss

Physics Primer: Refraction

An incidental wave of light approaching a refractive surface (e.g. glass) will enter the surface
The angle of incidence is not equal to the angle of refraction The angle inside a material of higher density will decrease, until exiting the material

Controlled Refraction
This could be used to bend light inside a cable, which allows the cable to be bent around corners (to some degree)

Refractive Optical Cable

higher density glass

reflective surface

lower density glass

Light refracts as it passes from a material of one density into a material of another density This type of fibre optic cable is made of variable density glass The further toward the inside of the fibre, the higher density the glass
The higher density glass refracts the light beams toward the centre

Carrier Waves
The media just described all serve the same purpose: to transmit data
Data is transmitted on a carrier wave

A carrier wave is some waveform

This waveform is typically sinusoidal (like a sine or cosine curve) The carrier wave is varied (modulated) in some way to represent bits
Typically an unmodified wave represents no data

Carrier Waves
For a wireless networks, the radio waves themselves are the carrier waves For electric networks, the voltage is varied between a positive value and a negative value in a wave pattern For optical networks, often the intensity (brightness) of the light is varied in a wave pattern
The light waves are not often used as carrier waves, as the frequency of visible light is very high, and difficult to control

Carrier Waves
Here is how carrier waves represent data:
A carrier wave can be a flow of electrons in a specific pattern through a conductor
e.g. A copper wire

When the wave intensity is high, the wave is at a crest: When the wave itensity is low, the wave is at a trough:

Carrier Wave Modulation

Unmodulated carrier waves represent no data Carrier waves are modulated in the following ways:
Amplitude modulation: The intensity (amplitude/wave height) is varied Frequency modulation: The frequency (wave width) is varied Phase shift modulation: The wave is shifted (left/right)

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The intensity of the waves (amplitude or height) on the communication medium is modified to represent 0 or 1
This is the same as what is applied to radio waves for AM radio stations This is not typically used with electric networks

AM waves are sensitive to distances

As distance lowers intensity of a signal, the difference between 0s and 1s may be lost

Amplitude Modulation
+4v +2v

-2v -4v
0.2 s 0.2 s 0.2 s 0.2 s

Frequency Modulation (FM)

The frequency of the waves (how often crests and troughs occur per second) on the communication medium is modified to represent 0 or 1
This is the same as what is applied to radio waves for FM radio stations This is used in most electric networks

FM waves are less sensitive to signal deterioration

Over distances the intensity of signals decrease (electrons get lost) Usually, even with deteriorated signals, the frequency can still be determined

Frequency Modulation
+4v

-4v
0.2 s 0.2 s 0.2 s 0.2 s

0
Frequency: 1.0*107

1
Frequency: 0.5*107

Phase Shift Modulation (PSM)

The temporal position of the wave is varied
In other words, the wave is shifted forward or backward in time

PSM is also less sensitive to signal deterioration

Over distances the intensity of signals decrease (electrons get lost) Usually, even with deteriorated signals, the phase shift can still be detected

Phase Shift Modulation

+4v

-4v
0.2 s 0.2 s 0.2 s 0.2 s

Modem
Modem: modulator/demodulator Modulation: Given a sequence of bits, creates a carrier wave
The carrier wave is varied (AM, FM, PSM, etc.) to represent the data

Demodulation: Given a carrier wave, creates a sequence of bits

The carrier wave variations are detected, and turned back into the data they represent

Standard Telephone Modems

Modems used in dialup Internet access actually use an analog (audio) carrier wave
This is the weird sound you hear when you pick up the telephone when the modem is in operation

The telephone modem was designed to send digital data over the analog phone system

DSL Modems
DSL modems are similar to standard telephone modems Modern phone systems handle a fairly broad audio band, most of which is not necessary for telephones
This is because sound at these frequencies is too high or low to be heard by the ear, or generated by the vocal chords

These bands are used for digital transmission

Thus, telephone service is not interrupted Multiple signals are sent/received simultaneously, using frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing

With frequency division multiplexing, multiple signals are combined into a broadband medium
The broadband medium is split into narrowband channels (frequency ranges) Each channel transmits and/or sends one signal at any given time FDM

Cable Modems
Cable modems, while similar to telephone modems, use coaxial cable Coaxial cable uses time division multiplexing (TDM) for its channels
Each TV station uses one channel Upstream and downstream use their own channels

Time Division Multiplexing

With time division multiplexing, multiple signals are combined one signal
Each signal is given a time slice, during which time that signal is put onto the medium When the time slice is over, the next signal gets transmitted, and the process repeats

TDM

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Multiplexing
Combining multiple signals into one (complex) signal

Demultiplexing
Restoring multiple signals from one (complex) signal