Bel 05 Bipolar Junction Transistor

Simplified Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistors
NPN Transistor
C B E
PNP Transistor
C B E
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur
TRANSISTOR (BJT) PRINCIPLES
Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode. [ Reverse current components due to thermally generated minority carriers are not shown ] For active operation of the transistor, the E-B junction is forward biased and the C-B junction is reverse biased
BJT Operation
Electrons are injected into the base from emitter and holes are injected into the emitter from the base Since ND ( emitter) >> NA ( Base ), nE >> pB thus, IE = Ine + Ipb = Ine ( 1 + Ipb/Ine) $ InE @ Ine >> Ipb
The electrons injected into the base diffuse towards the collector Since the physical base width is very small ( only a few micron), only a very few electrons are lost by recombination with holes ( majority carriers) in the base Most of them reach the C-B junction where they are instantaneously swept out or collected by the strong electric field in the depletion layer of C-B junction
BJT Operation
The fraction ( E ) of injected electrons which are finally collected by the collector is called common base current gain. E is usually just less than 1 Since the C-B junction is reverse biased, the minority carriers from either side of the junction cross it easily. Since VCB >> VT , this component of collector current is equal to the reverse saturation current ( ICBO ) of the C-B junction @ IC = EIE + ICBO, As Ine } IE , IC = E IE + ICBO
Hence ICBO = IC for IE = 0, i.e. ICBO is the current in the collector base loop when the emitter is open ( IE = 0 ) Few electrons which are unable to reach the C-B junction recombine with holes - the majority carriers in the base. It accounts for a small base current (IB) that is supplied from the base contact to restore the charge neutrality which was hampered by the recombination.
Collector Current Calculation

From Kirchoffs Current law, IE = IC + IB E 1 IC = . IB + . ICBO 1-E 1- E Substituting this in IC = E IE + ICBO we get IC E ( IC + IB ) + ICBO or, or,
current gain. F /E } F , since E } 1
IC = F IB + F/E . ICBO where, F = E / (1-E ) = common emitter
@ IC = F IB + ICEO
where, ICEO } FICBO is the current in the collector-emitter loop if the base is open ( IB = 0 ) Also, E = F / ( 1+ F ) If E = 0.995, F = 199
Usually E is very close to unity and F lies in the range of 25 350.

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Base)
Common Base Connection Input characteristics of common base transistors

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Base)
Typical output characteristics (CB) of an n-p-n transistors

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Emitter)
Common emitter circuit
Input characteristics of an n-p-n transistors(CE)

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Emitter)
Typical common emitter output characteristics of an n-p-n transistors

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Cut- off, Active and Saturation region of an n-p-n transistors

The region below IB= 0 is known as cut-off region. The region where the curve is approximately horizontal is the active region. For VCE < 0.7 V, VCB becomes negative and the C-B junction is forward biased and the transistor is said to saturated state VCE(sat) ranges from 0.2 0.3 V. The transistor should not be operated beyond maximum power dissipation curve ( maximum power that can be dissipated without overheating).
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BJT Characteristics
In saturation
In Saturation
Early voltage
VCC VCE ( sat ) IC ! RC VCC } RC

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Concept of Gain from BJT Characteristics
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Transistors (BJT) Biasing

In the active region, the E-B junction is forward biased and the C-B junction is reverse biased. IC w IB = F IB @ (IC = F (IB
VCE =VCC IC RC @ (VCE = RC ( IC This linear or analog relationship between (IC and (IB holds true for some particular ranges of IC and VCE. We bias the transistor in such a way that the most appropriate values of IB, IC, VCE are maintained. The particular set of values (d.c.) of IB, IC, and VCE represents a particular point in the output characteristics of the transistor, called the operating point or quiscent point.
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Operating Point and Load Line of a BJT

Can we choose the operating point arbitrarily ? No. The choice is governed by a number of conditions.
By applying Kirchoffs voltage law in the C-E circuit, we get VCC = VCE + ICRC VCE IC + = 1 VCC VCC/RC Thus the relationship between VCE and IC is a straight line, called LOAD LINE, having intercepts with VCE and IC axes as VCC and VCC/RC respectively.
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BJT Operating Point

The intersection of the line with the transistor output characteristic for a particular IB gives the operating point (Q), [ ICQ, VCEQ, IBQ ]. The operating point, Q should be chosen in such a way that ICQ < IC max ( maximum current rating ), VCEQ < VCE max ( breakdown voltage ), (VCEQ . ICQ ) < P0 max ( maximum allowable power dissipation). The corresponding IBQ = ICQ / F. The choice of the operating point for maximum swing of output voltage and current around the dc values is as follows : VCEQ = [ VCC + VCE ( sat ) ] /2, ICQ = IC max /2, IBQ = ICQ / F satisfying the condition, VCEQ . ICQ < P0
max.
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Large signal wave-form distortion
Too large an input signal causes both positive and negative clipping
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Waveform Distortion due to wrong selection of Q-point
Q-point is located too close to saturation and the output voltage shows positive clipping
Q-point is located too close to cut-off and the output voltage shows negative clipping
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Temperature Sensitivity of Qpoint

The transistor parameters are temperature sensitive. ICEOor ICBO doubles for every 100 C rise of temperature, VBE K decreases with temp. at a rate 2.5 mV/ 0C, and F increases with temperature. Since IC = FIB + ICEO, and IB = ( VBB VBE) / RB, IB Increases with temp. ; hence IC will increase with temperature and VCE will decrease.
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Bias Stability and Thermal Runaway

It has been observed that the ac performance of a transistor amplifier depends heavily on the location of the Q point. If the simple biasing circuit is used, the Q point shifts to the left with increasing temperature, thus pushing the transistor towards saturation. This circuit holds base current constant at value IB = (Vcc VBE ) / RB and thus IC directly dependent on the highly variable value of F. [ IC } F IB ]. A bias circuit that maintains constant base current is sometimes called a fixed-bias design. Again collector current in C-E stage is given by IC = (FIB + ICEO) = FIB + FICBO . We see that an increase in ICBO results in an increase in IC. In some applications involving power transistors, large leakage currents, high temperatures and heavy power dissipation, there is a possibility that large change in ICBO can lead to the destructive phenomenon called thermal runaway.
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SELF BIAS / POTENTIAL DIVIDER BIAS CIRCUIT

It is desirable to make the dc bias as independent as possible of the parameters that affect it the most. The most popular transistor biasing circuit which uses a single power supply ( VCC = VBB ) is shown in figure below. In this case, a resistance RE is added in the emitter circuit. A potential divider arrangement ( R1 , R2 ) is made to provide the base drive ( current ). Thus VBE = VBG VEG = VBG - IE RE $ VBG IC RE [ E } 1 ] where G denotes ground point.
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SELF BIAS / POTENTIAL DIVIDER BIAS CIRCUIT

Thus, with increasing temp. as IC tends to increase, the drop across RE increases which results in a decrease of VBE [ VBE $ VBG ICRE ]. So, IB will fall and hence IC will also fall. Thus, RE acts as a negative feedback to stabilize IC with respect to temp. variation. Since IC is a function of three temp. dependent parameters, ICBO, VBE and F, we can express a small increment in IC as (IC = xIC /xICBO (ICBO + xIC /xVBE (VBE + xIC /xF (F or (IC = S1 (ICBO + S2 (VBE + S3 (F
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(IC = S1 . (ICBO + S2 (VBE + S3 (F S1 , S2 and S3 are called stability factors w.r.t. ICBO, VBE, and F respectively. The design of a good biasing circuit aims at reducing the values of S1 , S2 and S3. A large value of RE will generate more negative feed back thus making the biasing more stable (reducing S1 ,S2, S3 ).
Derivation of Stability Factors
(a)
(b)
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Replacing the potential divider circuit at the left of the dashed line (B-G) by the equivalent Thevenin voltage source, we get the circuit (b) where
R2 VB = VCC ~~(1) R1 + R2 R1 R2 RB = ~~ (2) R1 + R2
&
Applying K.V.L to the B-E loop of Fig.(b): VB = IB RB + VBE + ( IC + IB ) RE , since the drop across RE is IERE = ( IC + IB ) RE VB VBE RE IC IB = ~~~ (3) RB + RE
It gives,
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Again, IC = F IB + ( 1 + F) ICBO ~~ (4) [ as F/E = 1 + F ]
VB VBE RE IC Substituting (3) in (4) IC = F + (1+F) ICBO RB + RE Rearranging terms, we can express IC as a function of ICBO, VBE and F as : VB VBE RB + RE IC = F + ( 1 + F ) ICBO RB + ( 1 + F) RE RB + ( 1 + F) RE ~~( 5) RE + RB Thus we get S1 = xIC /xICBO = . (1+F) VBE const. RB + (1+F) RE F const.
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or, S1 = ( 1+ F) . (1 + RB / RE)/ [1 + F + (RB / RE )] Since ( 1 + F) >> RB / RE for practical circuits, we get S1 } 1 + R B / R E ~~~ ( 6 ) F = - RB + ( 1 + F) RE
Then S2 = xIC / xVBE ICBO = const. F = const.
F/ RE F/ RE or, S2 = - } - [ as ( 1+ F) >> RB/RE ] 1 + F + RB /RE 1+F Again F >>1, @ S2 } 1/RE ~~ ( 7)
We note that both S1 and S2 decreases as RE is made large compared to RB

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Beta-Stability
Transistors are made by a batch manufacturing process in which hundreds of transistor chips are processed simultaneously. Due to lack of uniformity, all the transistors of the same type fabricated in the same process may not have identical parameters. Particularly, there may be a wide variation of F from transistor to transistor of the same type. Thus F is temperature dependent as well as process dependent. If the transistor is to be replaced by another of the same type in a circuit ( in case of a failure ), IC and VCE may change substantially because of the difference in F. But the presence of RE stabilizes IC w.r.t. wide F variation. The corresponding stability factor, S3, for a large change of F is given by S3 = (IC2 IC1)/(F2 - F1) ~~~ (8)
where IC1 and IC2 are collector currents for the old and new transistors of F1 and F2 respectively.
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Simplified Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistors

TRANSISTOR (BJT) PRINCIPLES

Collector Current Calculation

current gain. F /E } F , since E } 1

IC = F IB + F/E . ICBO where, F = E / (1-E ) = common emitter

Usually E is very close to unity and F lies in the range of 25 350.

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Base)

Common Base Connection Input characteristics of common base transistors

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Base)

Typical output characteristics (CB) of an n-p-n transistors

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Emitter)

Common emitter circuit

Input characteristics of an n-p-n transistors(CE)

Transistors Characteristics ( Common Emitter)

Typical common emitter output characteristics of an n-p-n transistors

Cut- off, Active and Saturation region of an n-p-n transistors

VCC  VCE ( sat ) IC ! RC VCC } RC

Concept of Gain from BJT Characteristics

Transistors (BJT) Biasing

Operating Point and Load Line of a BJT

BJT Operating Point

Large signal wave-form distortion

Waveform Distortion due to wrong selection of Q-point

Temperature Sensitivity of Qpoint

Bias Stability and Thermal Runaway

SELF BIAS / POTENTIAL DIVIDER BIAS CIRCUIT

SELF BIAS / POTENTIAL DIVIDER BIAS CIRCUIT

Derivation of Stability Factors

Derivation of Stability Factors

Derivation of Stability Factors

Derivation of Stability Factors

Then S2 = xIC / xVBE  ICBO = const. F = const.

F/ RE F/ RE or, S2 = - } - [ as ( 1+ F) >> RB/RE ] 1 + F + RB /RE 1+F Again F >>1, @ S2 }  1/RE ~~ ( 7)

We note that both S1 and S2 decreases as RE is made large compared to RB

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VCC VCE ( sat ) IC ! RC VCC } RC

Then S2 = xIC / xVBE ICBO = const. F = const.

F/ RE F/ RE or, S2 = - } - [ as ( 1+ F) >> RB/RE ] 1 + F + RB /RE 1+F Again F >>1, @ S2 } 1/RE ~~ ( 7)