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CONCRETE
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT CONCRETE FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE ISSUES AFFECTING QUALITY OF CONCRETE
Fundamentals of Concrete
The
quality of the concrete depends to a great extent upon the quality of the paste. In properly made concrete, each particle of aggregate is completely coated with paste and all of the space between aggregate articles is completely filled with paste
Fundamentals of Concrete
For
given materials and conditions of curing, the quality of the hardened concrete is determined by the amount of water used in relation to the amount of cement. Following are some advantages of reducing water content: Increased compressive and flexural strength Increased water-tightness water-
Fundamentals of Concrete
Lower absorption Increased resistance Better bond between
to weathering successive
layers Better bond between concrete and reinforcement Less volume change from wetting and drying
FRESH CONCRETE
Freshly mixed concrete should be plastic or semisemi-fluid, capable of being molded by hand. A very wet concrete mixture can be molded in the sense that it can be cast in a mold, but this is not within the definition of plastic plastic that which is pliable and capable of being modeled or shaped like a lump of modeling clay. A plastic and cohesive paste is attained with a low ratio of water to cement and the correct proportions of all ingredients. It owes its stability to two factors: inter-particle interattraction among small particles and surface tension at entrapped air spaces.
FRESH CONCRETE
In
construction practice, thin concrete members and heavily reinforced concrete members require workable, but never soupy, mixes for ease of placement. A plastic mix is required for strength and for maintaining homogeneity during handling and placement.
The ease of placing and consolidating freshly mixed concrete Concrete should be workable but should not segregate or bleed excessively. Bleeding is the movement of water to the top surface of freshly placed concrete brought about by the settlement or sedimentation of the cement, sand, and stone in the freshly placed concrete
is a consequence of the combined effect of vibration and gravity in a somewhat plastic mix. tendency of fresh concrete to segregate and bleed, it is important to transport and place each load of fresh concrete as closely as possible to its final position.
The
Non Air Entrained Concrete 40 35 30 25 20 15 0.42 0.47 0.54 0.61 0.69 0.79
W/C RATIO
The
water/cement ratio (w/c) of the mixture has the most control over the final properties of the concrete. The water/cement ratio is the relative weight of the water to the cement in the mixture water/cement ratio is a design criterion for the engineer of a w/c ratio gives the engineer control over two opposing, yet desirable properties: strength and workability.
The
Selection
W/C RATIO
A mixture with a high w/c will be more workable than a mixture with a low w/c: it will flow easier But the less workable the mixture, the stronger the concrete will be The engineer must decide what ratio will give the best result for the given situation This is not an entirely free choice because the water/cement ratio needs to be about 0.25 to complete the hydration reaction.
Content of the mix Size of aggregate (fine aggregate: 3/8 pass, coarse aggregate: larger 3/8 size)
Water
Consolidation
Vibration sets into motion the particles in the fresh concrete, reducing friction between them, and giving the mixture the mobile qualities of a thick fluid. Mechanical vibration permits use of a stiff mixture, and a larger proportion of coarse and a smaller proportion of fine aggregates can therefore be used. The larger the maximum-size aggregate in a well-graded maximumwellaggregate, the less volume remains to be filled with paste and less surface area to be coated, so less water and less paste are needed. With adequate consolidation, harsher as well as stiffer mixtures result in improved quality and economy
Consolidation
The larger the maximum-size maximumaggregate in a well-graded wellaggregate, the less volume remains to be filled with paste and less surface area to be coated, so less water and less paste are needed. With adequate consolidation, harsher as well as stiffer mixtures result in improved quality and economy
A good indication of the water content of a mix (and thus the workability) can be had from a standard slump test Slump (statistic measurement of workability) qualitatively measures the degree of wetness of concrete and is very useful in detecting variation in the uniformity of mix of given mix proportions
wall, footings Plain footings, caisson Beams, RC walls Columns Pavement, slabs Mass concrete
Four of these make up 90% or more of the weight of Portland cement: tricalcium silicate, di-calcium silicate, tricalcium dialuminate, and tetracalcium aluminoferrite.
The less porous the paste, the stronger the concrete In mixing concrete, therefore, no more water than is absolutely necessary should be used to make the concrete plastic and workable Even then, what is used is usually more water than is required for complete hydration of the Portland cement, but it is the amount needed for proper plasticity Knowledge of the amount of heat released as the cement hydrates is sometimes useful in planning construction
The heat may be harmful, however, in massive structures such as dams because it may produce undesirable internal stresses Type I Portland cement releases a little more than half of its total heat of hydration in three days. Type II, the high-early-strength cement, releases high-earlyapproximately the same percentage of its heat in much less than three days. Type III, a moderate-heat cement, releases less total moderateheat than the others and more than three days are required for only half of the heat to be released.
Other factors that influence the rate of Hydration include fineness of grinding, admixtures, amount of water added, and temperature of the materials at the time of mixing.
Curing
Curing
is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition until hydration is relatively complete. curing is typically considered to provide a moist environment and control temperature.
Good
Curing
A
moist environment promotes hydration, since increased hydration lowers permeability and increases strength resulting in a higher quality material. Allowing the concrete surface to dry out excessively can result in tensile stresses, which the still-hydrating stillinterior cannot withstand, causing the concrete to crack.
Portland cements do not harden or cure by drying. Concrete (or more precisely, the Portland cement in it) needs moisture to hydrate and harden. The drying of concrete is only indirectly related to hydration and hardening. When concrete dries, it ceases to gain strength, and the fact that it is dry is no indication that it has hydrated enough.
Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals which are added to the mix to achieve special purposes or to meet certain construction conditions There are basically four types: airair-entraining agents, workability agents, retarding agents, and accelerating agents.
In climates where the concrete will be exposed to freeze-thaw cycles air is freezedeliberately mixed in with the concrete in the form of billions of tiny air bubbles about 0.004 in in diameter. The bubbles provide interconnected pathways so that water near the surface can escape as it expands due to freezing temperatures. Without air-entraining, the surface of airconcrete will almost always spall off when subjected to repeated freezing and thawing. (Air(Air-entraining also has the very beneficial side effect of increasing workability without an increase in the water content.)
Admixtures
Entrained
air is not to be confused with entrapped air, which creates much larger voids and is caused by improper placement and consolidation of the concrete. Entrapped air, unlike entrained air, is never beneficial.
Admixtures
Workability
agents, which include waterwater-reducing agents and plasticizers, serve to reduce the tendency of cement particles to bind together in flocs and thus escape complete hydration. Fly ash, a by-product of the burning of bycoal that has some cementitious properties, is often used to accomplish a similar purpose.
Superplasticizers
are relatively new admixtures which when added to a mixture serve to increase the slump greatly, making the mixture very soupy for a short time and enabling a low-waterlow-water-content or otherwise very stiff) concrete to be easily placed.
Admixtures
Retarders
are used to slow the set of concrete when large masses must be placed and the concrete must remain plastic for a long period of time to prevent the formation of "cold joints" between one batch of concrete and the next batch.
Accelerators
serve to increase the rate of strength gain and to decrease the initial setting time. This can be beneficial when concrete must be placed on a steep slope with a single form or when it is desirable to reduce the time period in which concrete must be protected from freezing. The best known accelerator is calcium chloride, which acts to increase the heat of hydration, thereby causing the concrete to set up faster.
Concrete Proportioning
The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned by weight or volume. The goal is to provide the desired strength and workability at minimum expense Sometimes there are special requirements such as abrasion resistance, durability in harsh climates, or water impermeability, but these properties are usually related to strength. Sometimes concretes of higher strength are specified even though a lower f'c value would have met all structural requirements.
Mix Proportioning: prescribed the proportion of cement, sand and gravel which is unduly restrictive and leaves no room for economics in the mix design and no progress in the production of low-cost lowand satisfactory mixes based on the study of the properties of concrete
Material
Class AAA Cement Sand Gravel Class AA Cement Sand Gravel Class A Cement Sand Gravel Class B Cement Sand Gravel
Strength range
Mix quantity
per cu.m.
C: S: G
(bag: cu. ft: cu.ft)
50005000-4500 psi
13.5 bags 0.51 cu.m. 1.02 cu.m 9.5 0.41 0.92 9.5 0.42 0.84 8.5 0.52 0.87
1 : 1.0 : 2.0
4000 psi
1: 1.5 : 3.0
35003500-3000 psi
1: 2.0 : 4.0
25002500-2000 psi
1: 2.5 : 5.0
Modern Mix Proportion less restrictive but with limiting guidelines over a range of material properties such as:
Minimum compressive strength (structural consideration Maximum water cement ratio or maximum cement contentcontent- cracking, shrinkage, durability, strength, workability, economy consideration Minimum air content- durability and strength contentconsideration Minimum density- for lightweight/heavyweight densitytype materials
A low water-to-cement ratio is needed to achieve strong concrete It would seem therefore that by merely keeping the cement content high one could use enough water for good workability and still have a low w/c ratio The problem is that cement is the most costly of the basic ingredients.
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinks when it dries and expands when its moistened When continuously damp, it slowly expands for several years (rate of expansion is so small) Drying shrinkage is the primary cause of cracking (temperature changes)
Strength of Concrete
The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the waterwater-cement ratio (w/c) the design constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed All things being equal, concrete with a lower waterwatercement (cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than a higher ratio The total quantity of cementitious materials (Portland cement, slag cement, pozzolans) can affect strength, water demand, shrinkage, abrasion resistance and density
Strength of Concrete
The compressive strength of concrete is a primarily property of concrete and a factor needed for designing bridges, buildings, and other structures. In designing pavements and other slabs on ground, the flexural strength of concrete is generally used.
Strength of Concrete
Compressive strength can be used as an index of flexural strength, once the empirical relationship between then has been established for the materials involved. The flexural strength or modulus of rupture of normal-weight concrete is often given as 8 to 10 times the square root of the compressive strength; another approximate relationship is 0.79 times the quantity: compressive strength to the 0.79 power
Strength of Concrete
As concrete cures it shrinks because the water not used for hydration gradually evaporates from the hardened mix For large continuous elements such shrinkage can result in the development of excess tensile stress, particularly if a high water content brings about a large shrinkage Concrete, like all materials, also undergoes volume changes due to thermal effects, and in hot weather the heat from the exothermic hydration process adds to this problem
Strength of mortar Bond between mortar and aggregate Grading of aggregates W/C ratio Shape, size and strength of aggregates
Compressive strength of concrete is directly related to the W/C ratio and increases with the age of the specimen Mechanical tests normally have a qualitative control value; they dont necessarily indicate the actual strength of concrete
increases the less permeable the concrete mix is Low water cement ratio impacts all the desired properties of hardened concrete listed in desired properties of concrete. Water permeability increases exponentially when concrete has a water cement ratio greater than .50.
of Cracking
Two basic causes of cracks in concrete are (1) stress due to applied loads and (2) stress due to drying shrinkage or temperature changes.
Drying shrinkage is an inherent, unavoidable property of concrete; therefore, properly positioned reinforcing steel is used to reduce crack widths, or control joints are used to direct cracks to inconspicuous locations. Thermal stress due to fluctuations in temperature can cause cracking, particularly at an early age in pavements.
Know the allowable water for the mix the contractor is pouring- or be very sure you pouringhave chosen a reputable contractor who will make sure the proper mix is poured It is more expensive to do it right- it simply righttakes more manpower to pour stiffer mixes
Concrete Cracks? 3 ) Improper strength concrete poured on the job Concrete is available in many different strengths. Verify what strength the concrete you are pouring should be poured at.
Unexpected cracking of concrete is a frequent cause of complaints. Cracking can be the result of one or a combination of factors, such as drying shrinkage, thermal contraction, restraint (external or internal) to shortening, subgrade settlement, and applied loads. Cracking can be significantly reduced when the causes are taken into account and preventative steps are utilized.
Crazing is a pattern of fine cracks that do not penetrate much below the surface and are usually a cosmetic problem only. They are barely visible, except when the concrete is drying after the surface has been wet.
When water evaporates from the surface of freshly placed concrete faster than it is replaced by bleed water, the surface concrete shrinks. Due to the restraint provided by the concrete below the drying surface layer, tensile stresses develop in the weak, stiffening plastic concrete, resulting in shallow cracks of varying depth. These cracks are often fairly wide at the surface.
Thermal cracks:
Temperature rise (especially significant in mass concrete) results from the heat of hydration of cementitious materials. As the interior concrete increases in temperature and expands, the surface concrete may be cooling and contracting.
This causes tensile stresses that may result in thermal cracks at the surface if the temperature differential between the surface and center is too great. The width and depth of cracks depends upon the temperature differential, physical properties of the concrete, and the reinforcing steel.
the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of coarse aggregate and by using lowlowshrinkage aggregate. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability and placement; do not permit overly wet consistencies. Use calcium chloride admixtures only when necessary.
Prevent
rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic through use of spraysprayapplied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid plastic-shrinkage plasticcracks (more important in slabs) contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the wall thickness is a good rule-ofrule-ofthumb.
Provide
Prevent
extreme changes in temperature after placement and initial cure. place and consolidate the concrete.
Properly
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