Different parts of the skin have different levels and sensitivity.

The skin sensitivity depends on:

Thickness

of the epidermis. The palms of our hands, the lips and the neck are more sensitive than the soles of our feet.

Number

of receptor present. The more receptors found on the skin, the more sensitive is that part of the skin.

 The

cells of the smell receptors are found on the upper part of the nasal cavity, which are connected to the nerve endings that in turn convey smell impulses to the brain. substances, inhaled through the nose, dissolve in the mucus and stimulate the sensory cells of smell. impulses are sent to the brain through the nerves to be interpreted.

Chemical

Then,

The Ear pinna collects and directs sound waves into the eardrum through the auditory canal. The eardrum vibrates and the sound vibration in transferred to the ear bones (ossicle). The ossicles strengthen these vibrations and convey them to the oval window.

The vibrations of the oval window cause the fluid in the cochlea to produce nerve impulses. The nerve impulses are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve to be interpreted.

 The

ear as a balancing organ:

Apart from functioning as a hearing organ, the ear also controls the balance of the body. Any bodily movements will stimulate the receptors in the semicircular canals to produce impulses. The brain will interpret these impulses and direct the muscles to respond and to balance up the body.

The tongue is the sensory organ for taste. It can detect salt, sour, sweet and bitter tastes. are small bumps on the surface of the tongue known as taste buds. taste buds are cells which are sensitive to taste. parts of the tongue have different

There

The

Different

tastes.

When we eat, the chemical substances from the food dissolve in the saliva and stimulate the taste buds. then, the receptors on the taste buds send impulses to the brain to be interpreted. When someone is having a flu, the taste of food cannot be detected because too much of mucus block the sensory cells.

Changes in the size of the pupil under different situations.

Light is reflected off an object into our eyes. The light travels through the pupil and the eye lens. Finally the light is focused onto the retina. The image formed on the retina is real, inverted and smaller than the object. The optic nerve then sends the nerve impulses from the retina to the brain. The brain interprets the image as upright.

The condition of the eye lens looking at near and distant objects

 the

route of light rays from the object entering the eye

Reflection of light Light rays are reflected by an opaque surface.

A smooth and shiny opaque surface, like a plane mirror, reflects nearly all the light rays that fall on it. According to the Law of Reflection,
the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal are all on the same plane. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

The Law of Reflection is obeyed only if the parallel light rays fall onto a uniform surface. The reflected light rays are also parallel and in order. If the parallel light rays fall on a non-uniform rough surface, the reflected light rays will not be parallel or in order but dispersed. The light ray is reflected when it is directed towards the plane mirror. The characteristics of the image formed are as follows : (a) virtual ( cannot be formed on a screen ). (b) vertical. (c) of the same size as the object. (d) the distance of the image behind the mirror is the same as the distance of the object in front of the mirror. (e) laterally inverted.

Refraction of light takes place when light travels through two different media with different densities at an angle. The speed of light changes when it moves from one medium to another with a different density which causes the light to be refracted (bent). The following shows the three situations of the movement of light rays through two different media

The following examples shows how light travels from one medium to another with different densities.

The defect may be caused by (a) abnormally long eyeballs. (b) eye lens that are abnormally thick. this happens because the ciliary muscles are weak and are unable to make the eye lens thinner. The defect can be corrected by wearing concave lenses ( diverging lenses ). A concave lens divergas the light rays before they enter the eye.

A long-sighted person can see distant objects clearly but near objects appear blur. 2. Long sightedness occurs because the image of a near objects falls behind the retina. 3. The defect may be caused by (a) abnormally short eyeballs. (b) eye lens that are abnormally thin. This happens because the ciliary muscles are weak and are unable to make the eye lens thicker. 4. The defect can be corrected by using convex lenses ( converging lenses ). 5. A convex lens converges the light rays before they enter the eye.

Astigmatism is caused by the irregular curvature of the cornea. All the light rays from an object do not meet at a point on the retina. On the other hand, some light rays are focused on the retina while others are focused either in front or behind the retina. In many cases, astigmatism causes blurred vision for either near or distant objects. To correct astigmatism, the optician recommends cylindrical lenses ( asymmetrical lens ).

 Optical

illusion

Sometimes what we see may not appear to be the real thing. This is because the brain cannot interpret accurately what is actually seen by the eye. This limitation of the sense of sight is known as optical illusion ( confusion of the brain ).

Stereoscopic vision 1. Stereoscopic vision is vision involving both eyes. 2. The brain will combine the vision from both eyes to from both eyes to from a three-dimensional image. 3. This enables us to estimate distances accurately. 4. The stereoscopic field of vision is narrow. 5. Predators usually have stereoscopic vision.

 Monocular

vision

1. Monocular vision is vision involving one eye only. This makes estimating distances accurately difficult. 2. Monocular vision produces a flat image. 3. The monocular field of vision is wide. 4. Preys usually have monocular vision.

1. Optical instruments can be used to help overcome the limitations of the sense of sight. 2. The microscope is an optical instrument which helps us see fine and small objects. 3. The telescope and binoculars are optical instruments that help us see distant objects.

4. The periscope is used in submarines to see above the sea level. 5. X-ray machines enable us to observe our bodies' internal organs. 6. A special machine called the ultrasonic scanner can produce an image of a foetus in a pregnant woman's womb on a screen.

 Production

of Sound

Vibrations

produce sound :

Sound is a form of energy produced by vibration. When an object vibrates, the kinetic energy from the object is converted into sound energy.