LEARNING FLOW

IN

LOGIC

Testing 1
Deductive Inductive Deductive Valid Sound Inductive Strong Cogent Deductive Symbolic Logic Truth Table

Testing 3 Inductive Fallacy

Arguments

Testing 2

Basic Principle in Logic

ARGUMENT ARGUMENT
Premises that support the conclusion Good reasoning

ARGUMENT
Premises that do not support the conclusion Bad reasoning

What is a Fallacy?

Bad argument

Error in reasoning

Deceptive Argument

Fallacy is ...
y An argument that seems to be

correct but actually is not because either the premise is false or the conclusion is false.
y Any form of argument that shows

inconsistency or falsity.

Two Groups of Fallacy

Formal

Deductive Argument

Informal

Inductive argument

Causes of Fallacy in Inductive Argument

Content of the Premises

Conclusion
Emotions Pejorative Discredit Disposition

Types of Fallacies
Irrelevance Appeal to Pity Weak Induction Appeal to unqualified Authority Appeal to Ignorance Hasty Generalization Presumption Begging the question Ambiguity Equivocation Grammatical Analogy Composition

Appeal to Force Appeal to People

Complex Question False Dichotomy Suppressed Evidence

Amphiboly

Division

Argument False Cause against person Accident Irrelevant Conclusion Weak Analogy

Fallacies of Irrelevance
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Appeal to pity Appeal to force Appeal to the people Argument against person Accident Irrelevant Conclusion a. Straw Man b. Missing the Point c. Red Herring

Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)

Example:
The accused is a father of five children. All of them will be deprived of the care of a father, will stop from schooling, no one to feed them because the wife is jobless. Thus, he should be acquitted from the penalty.

I should not fail in Logic class. I have been taking it up for three consecutive times now. My father is working abroad doing all the sacrifices and hard work to be able to send me to school. Moreover, if my father knows about this, he will surely beat me to death.

Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum)

Example:
The members of League of Filipino Students will go to the streets to rally and demonstrate. There will be chaos in the streets. Therefore, the plea of the LFS to halt the tuition fee increase must be heeded.

Those who do not join the gimmick will no longer be considered as part of the peer group. Friends are friends. All for one, one for all. So, everyone must skip classes this afternoon to play dota.

Appeal to Emotion (Argumentum ad Populum)

1. Popular Appeal
Marian Rivera says that Sunsilk shampoo makes her hair shiny and beautiful. She is a movie actress and a model. Sunsilk shampoo will make my hair shiny and beautiful.

2. Appeal to the Multitude

Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what he believes will make himself happier. The recognition of that can take most of the sting out of accusations that you're being "selfish." Why should you feel guilty for seeking your own happiness when that's what everyone else is doing, too?

Many people nowadays no longer give importance to virginity. So, virginity is a thing of the past.

Attack against person (Argumentum ad Hominem)

1. Abusive The candidate promised that he will do everything so that the cleanliness of the barangay will be attained. He cannot do it because he cannot even removed his beard and clean his face. (Therefore, the candidate cannot fulfill his promise).

The teacher files complaints against the student for cheating during class. He should not be listened to because he is at odds against his colleagues and he is not welcome to his department because of his ill temper.

2. Circumstantial Abortion is immoral. This position is widely accepted among the priest because they have to or they will be reprimanded by the pope to whom they pledged obedience.

Fallacy of Accident
 Examples:
Freedom of Speech is a constitutionally guaranteed right. Therefore, Jose Ma. Sison should not be arrested for his speech that incited the riot last week. Property should be returned to its rightful owner. That drunken student who is starting a fight with his opponent in the canteen lent you his kitchen knife and now he wants it back. Therefore, you should return it to him now. Bestfriends help one another in all undertakings. There will be a written exam in Logic class today. Therefore, we should sit together and help each other pass the exam.

Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignoratio Elenchi) Elenchi)

1. Missing the point
Crimes of carnapping and murder have been increasing at an alarming rate lately. The conclusion is obvious, we must reinstate the death penalty immediately. The bicameral form of government is not effective in the Philippines. Therefore, we should shift to the parliamentary form of government. There are some provisions in the 1986 Constitution that are no longer attuned to the 21st century. They oftentimes serve as barrier to the socio-economicsocio-economic-political advancement of the country. Therefore, we must advocate for the change of the constitution.

 2. Red Herring
There is a good deal of talk these days about the need to eliminate pesticides from our fruits and vegetables. But many of the foods are essential to our health. Carrots are an excellent source of vitamin A, broccoli is rich in iron, and oranges and grapefruits have lots of vitamin C. Pres. GMA will run after the hoodlum in uniforms and the crooks in robes. Policemen and judges are two professions that take a long years of education to achieve it. And, they need to have a license in order for them to practice their profession. Meralco charges high electricity rate because they impose on the consumer their operation cost, retirement plan and benefits of their employees. The spokesperson of Meralco claimed that it would have not happened if the government would abolish the value added tax being imposed on private establishments.

 3. Straw Man
DLSC Teachers proposed to start the classes with prayer. This is a clear case of proselytization. Therefore, the school intends to proselytization. convert its student to the catholic faith. The garment workers have signed a petition arguing for better ventilation on the work premises. Unfortunately, air conditioning is expensive. Air ducts would have to run throughout the factory, and a massive heat exchange unit installed on the roof. Also, the cost of operating such a system during the summer would be astronomical. In view of these considerations, the petition must be rejected. The SC presented the guidelines for school dress code. What they want is for the students to return to the ancient era when women and men alike wear clothes from neck down. Such a policy is ridiculous.

Fallacies of Weak induction

9. 10. 11. 12.

Appeal to unqualified Authority Appeal to ignorance Hasty Generalization False Cause

- Non causa pro causa - Post hoc ergo propter hoc - Slippery Slope

13.

Weak Analogy

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

(Argumentum ad Verecundiam)  Examples:
Dr. De La Cruz, our family physician, has stated that the creation of muonic atoms of deuterium and tritium hold the key to producing a sustained nuclear fusion reaction at room temperature. In view of Dr. De La Cruz expertise as a physician, we must conclude that this is indeed true. Mr. Lucio Tan, owner of Fortune Tobacco in the country, testified before the congressional fact-finding committee that tobacco is not an factaddictive substance and that smoking cigarettes does not produce any addiction. Therefore, we should believe him and conclude that smoking does not in fact lead to any addiction. An old man who is practically blind has testified in court that he saw the defendant stab the victim with a bayonet while he was standing in the twilight shadows 100 yards from the incident. Therefore, the defendant must be found guilty.

Appeal to Ignorance
(Argumentum ad Ignorantiam)  Examples:

People have been trying for centuries to provide conclusive evidence for the claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that astrology is lot of nonsense. People have been trying for centuries to provide conclusive evidence to disprove the claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that the claims of astrology are true.

Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)

 Examples:
After one year the alternator went out in Mr. Juan De La Cruz new Toyota altis. altis. Ms. De Lima s new Toyota Avanza developed a transmission problem after six months. The obvious conclusion is that cars manufactured by Toyota Motors are just a pile of junk these days.

Six Arab fundamentalists were convicted of bombing the World Trade Center in New York City. The message is clear: Arabs are nothing but a pack of religious fanatics prone to violence.

Lea Salonga made a name abroad and in the US an a reliable singer and actress. Billy Crawford has conquered the music scene in Europe. Indeed, all Filipinos are great artists.

My parents had premarital sex, and still ended up with each other. My uncle and auntie had the same experience but they are having a wonderful marriage. So, it is alright to have premarital sex.

False Cause (Post hoc ergo propter hoc; Non causa pro causa) causa)
 Examples:
Whenever I play basketball with my kneecap on, I play like Michael Jordan. To bag the MVP award in the next tournament, I should always play with my kneecap on. When students are assured of a high grade, the learning curve is higher because the pressure and anxiety are eliminated. Therefore, we must eliminate the grading system to ensure an efficient educational program. The quality of education in the Philippines is on a decline for years. Clearly, the teachers just are not doing their job these days. Today, all of us can look forward to a longer life span than our parents and grandparents. Obviously, we owe our thanks to the millions of dedicated doctors who expend every effort to ensure our health.

Slippery Slope
 Examples: Immediate steps should be taken to outlaw pornography once and for all. The continued manufacture and sale of pornographic material will almost certainly lead to an increase in sex related crimes such as rape and incest. This in turn will gradually erode the moral fabric of society and result in an increase in crimes of all sorts. Eventually a complete disintegration of law and order will occur, leading in the end to the total collapse of civilization. Attempts to outlaw pornography threaten basic civil rights and should be summarily abandoned. If pornography is outlawed, censorship of newspaper and news magazines is only a short step away. After that there will be censorship of textbook, political speeches, and the content of lectures delivered by university professors. Complete mind control by the central government will be the inevitable result.

Weak Analogy
 Examples: Michael s new car is bright blue, has leather upholstery, and gets excellent mileage. John s new car is also bright blue and has leather upholstery. Therefore, it probably gets excellent gas mileage, too.

Lasallian student A is tall, dark and handsome. Lasallian student B is tall and dark. So student B is more likely handsome.

Philippines is an archipelago, located in south east Asia, a third world country and predominantly catholic. Indonesia is an archipelago, located in south east Asia, and a third world country. So probably, Indonesia is predominantly Catholic.

Fallacies of Presumption 15. Begging the Question 16. Complex Question 17. False Dichotomy 18. Suppressed Evidence Fallacies of Ambiguity 19. Equivocation 20. Amphiboly Fallacies of Grammatical Analogy 21. Composition 22. Division

Begging the Question (Petitio Principii)

 Examples:
Murder is morally wrong. This being the case, it follows that abortion is morally wrong. It is obvious that the poor in this country should be given handouts from the government. After all, these people earn less than the average citizen. Capital punishment is legitimate and appropriate. Thus, capital punishment is justified. Ford Motor Company clearly produces the finest cars in the US. We know they produce the finest cars because they have the best design engineers. This is true because they can afford to pay them more than the other manufacturers. Obviously, they can afford to pay them more because they produce the finest cars in the US.

Complex Question
 Examples:
Have you stopped cheating on exams?

Where did you hide the cookies you stole?

Are you going to be a good little boy and eat your hamburger?

Is George Hendrix still smoking marijuana?

How long must I put up with your snooty behavior?

False Dichotomy
 Examples: Either you let me attend the Lady Gaga concert or I ll be miserable for the rest of my life. I know you don t want me to be miserable for the rest of my life, so it follows that you ll let me attend the concert. Either you use Rexona deodorant or you risk the chance of perspiration odor. Surely you don t want to risk the chance of perspiration odor. Therefore, you will want to use Rexona deodorant. Either you buy only Filipino-made products or you don t Filipinodeserve to be called a loyal Filipino. Yesterday you bought a Mexican-made plip- plops slippers. Therefore it is clear Mexicanplipthat you don t deserve to be called a loyal Filipino.

Suppressed Evidence
 Examples: Most dogs are friendly and pose no threat to people who pet them. Therefore, it would be safe to pet the little dog that is approaching us now.

The Philippines currency has increased it value against the dollar because of the sound economic agenda of Pres. GMA administration. Therefore, the country is on the way to economic recovery.

The Bible states in one passage that Judas hanged himself. in another passage, Go and do the same. Therefore, let us go and hanged ourselves.

Equivocation
 Examples:
Some triangles are obtuse. Whatever is obtuse is ignorant. Therefore, obtuse. some triangles are ignorant. All strikes are protests. All strikes are good pitches. Therefore, some good pitches are protests. Every pen is a writing instrument. The cage of a pig is a pen. pen. Therefore, the cage of a pig is a writing instrument. right. We have a duty to do what is right. We have as right to speak out in defense of the innocent. Therefore, we have a duty to speak out in defense of the innocent.

Amphiboly
 Examples:
The tour guide said that standing in Greenwich Village, the Empire State Building could easily be seen. It follows that the Empire State Building is in Greenwich Village. All hospital patients carrying an umbrella have broken ribs. Professor Ocampo said that he will give a lecture about heart failure in the biology lecture hall. The paralytic student sat on a chair with a broken leg. Woman without her man is a savage.

Composition
 Examples: Michelle likes vanilla ice cream. She also likes chocolates. Therefore, it is certain that she would like vanilla ice cream dipped in chocolates. Each atom in this piece of chalk is invisible. Therefore, the chalk is invisible. Sodium and chlorine, the atomic components of salt, are both deadly poisons. Therefore, salt is a deadly poison.

7 is odd, 5 is odd. But 7 and 5 are twelve. Therefore, 12 is odd.

Division
 Examples:
Salt is a nonpoisonous compound. Therefore, its component elements, sodium and chlorine are non poisonous. This jigsaw puzzle, when assembled, is circular in shape. Therefore, each piece is circular in shape. The Royal Society is over 300 years old. Prof. Magsadia is a member of the Royal Society. Therefore, Prof. Magsadia is over 300 years old. All in this room weigh 1 metric ton. But, only John is in this room. Therefore, John weigh 1 metric ton. Twelve is even. But 7 and 5 are twelve. Therefore, 7 and 5 are even.

Detecting Fallacies Attention to what the arguer is saying. Listeners or readers must not be asleep,
passive, drugged on that state.

Emphasis: What is the conclusion? What are the

reasons given in support of the conclusion?

Relevance: Are the reasons relevant to the

conclusion? Do the reasons support conclusion? the

Think!!!

Avoiding Fallacies
There is a need for moral education Familiarity with every fallacies Check and control of ones emotions Acknowledge ones worldview Critique ones presuppositions

END

Exercise: Analyze each one and indicate what kind of fallacy is

described in each number. 1. Every butterfly is an insect. Some flies are big. Ergo, some people are laborers. 2. You are seated beside a woman. Ergo, she is your lover. 3. All men are thinking beings. Some men desire attractive women. Ergo, those who desire attractive women are thinking beings. 4. I did not see your girlfriend ever since. Ergo, you have no girlfriend. 5. The car accident did not occur because it is not read in the newspaper. 6. She is a two-timer and irresponsible woman. I hope she will turn out to be a good wife. 7. Believe me or else you will be sorry. 8. This blouse is colorful because it has orange, blue, white, purple, red, yellow and green on it. 9. Somebody died because of your dream.

Exercise: Analyze each one and indicate what kind of fallacy is

described in each number. 10. I am not going to listen to your negative statements regarding my future wife. All I want to hear from you are words of praises. 11. My ring is missing. You are one of the many who went near me. Ergo, you stole my ring. 12. You never talk to me. Ergo, you are mute. 13. You are unlucky today because its Friday the 13th. 14. All babies are adorable. Some babies are black. Ergo, sugar is sweet. 15. There are no spirits because we dont see them.

Informal Fallacies
Emotions Discredit/Pejorative Dispositions