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INTRODUCTION
Hypothesis
Assumption About Population parameter Supposition made on some basis
Hypothesis
According to Prof. Morris Humburg Hypothesis is a quantitative statement about a population Roger Mc Danial An assumption that a researcher makes about some characteristic of a population under study Guy Preliminary or tentative explanation by the researcher regarding the outcome of an investigation Mouton statement postulating a possible relationship b/w tow or more phenomenon or variable
Hypothesis and RQ
Both generate and contribute to body of knowlodge which supports or refutes an existing theory but hypothesis differs from a problem as a problem is formulated in form of a question; it serves basis and origin from which an hypothesis is derived. Hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. Problem cannot tested whereas hypothesis can be tested and verified. Hypothesis is formulated after defining problem review, theoretical and empirical background, studying analytical models.
Hypothesis Testing
Then we judge whether the difference is significant.The smaller the difference, greater the likelihood that our hypothesized value of our mean is correct, larger the difference , smaller the likelihood. The conventional approach to hypotheses is not to construct a single about population parameter, but rather to set up two different hypothesis, so constructed that if one is accepted the other is rejected and vice versa. The two hypothesis in statistical test are referred as 1. Null Hypothesis 2. Alternate Hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis Represented by Ho; where o represents no difference Ho : ( , =, ) o Only one sign of , =, will appear at a time. A very useful tool in testing the significance of difference. In simplest form the hypothesis asserts that there is no real difference b/w sample and population in particular characteristic / variable understudy, thus word null means invalid, void or amounting to nothing Eg. Whether extra coaching has benefited the students or not, null hypothesis extra coaching has not benefited the students or drug is not effective in curing a disease
Alternate Hypothesis Represented by Ha Ha : (< , , > ) o Alternate hypothesis specifies those values that the researcher believes to hold true for which sample data lead to acceptance of this hypothesis as true. Eg. A psychologist to test whether or not a certain class of people have a mean population IQ Ho : = 100 (null hypothesis) Ha : 100 (alternate hypothesis)
Hypothesis
For testing the differences b/w the mean of two groups, null hypothesis establishes that two groups have equal means (1 - 2 = 0) and for alternate hypothesis means are not equal (1 - 2 0) Ho : 1 - 2 = 0 (null hypothesis) Ha : 1 - 2 0 (alternate hypothesis)
Hypothesis
It is expressed in percentage, such as 5 percent,When H in question is accepted at 5 per cent level, the statistician is running the risk that, he will be making wrong decision about 5 percent of the time. By testing at 1 percent, he seeks to reduce the chance of making false judgment but some element of risk remains (1 of 100 occasions)that he will make the wrong decision I.e.he may accept where he ought to have rejected or vice versa. Statistical theory states that its probability must be small. Traditionally =0.05 for consumer research; = 0.01 for quality assurance and =0.10 for political
Hypothesis
3. Setting test criterion selecting appropriate probability distribution Some commonly used probability distribution are t, f and chi square. 4. Dong computations with a sample of size n 5. Making Decisions To accept or reject null hypothesis. To test whether computed value of test falls in region of rejection or acceptance depending upon significance level.
Reject Ho
Type 1 Error
Ho is False
Type II Error
Correct Decision
One-tailed Hypothesis
As distinguished from two tailed test, one tailed test is so called because the rejection region will be located on either left or right depending upon alternate hypothesis formulated. Eg. Testing hypothesis that an average income per household is Rs. 1000/- against alternate that income is less than 1000/-the rejection region will be on left side & test will be one sided left tailed test.
Null hypothesis : Ho : = o Alternate hypothesis : i) H1: o i.e. >o or : <o ii) H1: >o iii) < o
if two samples are drawn from different populations, we may be interested in finding out whether difference b/w the proportion of successes is significant or not. In such case we take hypothesis that difference b/w p1 & p2 i.e. proportion of success in one and other sample in due to fluctuations of random sampling. If p1-p2/S.E. is less than 1.96(5 % significance level) the difference is regarded as due to random sampling variations ie as not significant.
SE (p1-p2) =
n1 + n2
pq(1/n +1/n )
1 2
p= n1 p1+ n2 p2 or
p= x1 +x2
n1 + n2
s= (x-x)
n-1
x=mean of sample, =actual or hypothetical mean; n=sample size; s=SD of the sample.
t= X1- X2 S
x nn
1 1
n +n
S=
(X1 -X1 ) +
(X2 - X2)
n +n -2
1 2
t= d S
n
d -n(d )
S=
(d -d ) or
n -1
n 1
Chi-square test
Before calculating chi square, expected frequency may be given or calculated, in general expected frequency can be calculated from the equation : E=RTxCT/N RT= Row total containing cell, CT = Column total N= Number of observation
For eg, a drug was administered to 812 of total population 3248, number of fever cases is shown as Treatment Fever No Fever Total Drug 20 792 812 No Drug 220 2216 2436 Total 240 3008 3248 Expectation of AB = AxB/N = 812/3248x240 = 60 Table of expected frequency shall be 60 752 812 180 2256 2436 240 3008 3248 Df=(r-1)(c-1) = (2-1)(2-1)=1
1. Establish null and alternate hypothesis and establish significance level 2. Sample of observation is drawn from relevant statistic population. 3. A set of expected and theoretical frequencies is derived assuming that null hypothesis is true. 4. The observed frequencies is compared with expected. 5. If the calculated value of is less than table value at certain level of significance (generally at 5%) and for certain degree of freedom the fit is considered to be good otherwise poor or bad.
F test is named after great statistician R.A.Fisher. The object of the test is to find out whether the two independent estimates of population variance differ significantly, or whether the two samples as drawn from the normal populations having same variance. For carrying out the test of significance , we calculate the ratio F, as
s = (x -x ) s = (x -x )
1 1 1 2 2 2
n -1
1
n -1
2
Analysis of Variance
Analysis of Variance frequently referred as ANOVA is a statistical technique specially designed to test whether
means of more than two quantitative populations are equal ANOVA is developed by R.A. Fisher in 1920s is capable to test that specified classifications differ significantly.ANOVA enable us to analyze the total variation of data into components which may be attributed to causes of variations t test is a procedure of testing null hypothesis for two samples only. However, when we have three or more samples drawn from same population, ANOVA provides the possible solutions.
Analysis of Variance
For the sake of clarity the technique of Analysis of Variance have been discussed for One way classification Two-way classifications.
a. Calculate the mean of each sample i.e X1, X2 etc b. Calculate the grand average X pronounced as double bar
X1+X2+X3 + ,
X=
N1+N2+N3 + ,
c. Take the difference b/w means of various samples and the grand average.
c. Square these deviations and obtain the total which will give sum of squares b/w the samples d. Divide the total in step d) by the degrees of freedom, the degrees of freedom will be one less than the number of samples e.g.for 4 samples, df=4-1, for k samples, = k-1. 2. Calculate variance within the samples a. Calculate the mean of each sample i.e X1, X2 etc b. Take the deviations of various items in a sample from the mean values of the respective samples. c. Square these deviations, obtain the total which gives the sum of the squares within the samples
d. Divide the total in step c) by the degrees of freedom, the degrees of freedom is obtained by the deductions from the total number of items, the number of samples i.e. = Nk.Where k is number of samples and N is total number of all observations Between-Column Variance 3. Calculate the ratio F = Within-Column Variance or F = S1/S2 4. Compare the calculated value of F with the table value for the df at certain significance level, generally 5%, if F cal is more than difference is significant. It is customary to summarize the calculations in form of ANOVA table :
It is customary to summaries the calculations in form of ANOVA table : Source of SS Variations (sum of squares)
B/W Samples Within Samples
Total
Iuo
df c-1 2= n-c
1=
MS Mean Square
MSC=SSC/(c-1) MSE=SSE/(n-c)
SSC SSE
SST n-1 F= MSC/MSE SST = Total sum of squares of variations SSC= Sum of squares b/w samples (columns) SSE = Sum of squares within samples (rows) MSC = Mean sum of squares b/w samples. MSE= Mean sum of squares within samples.
a. To simplify the calculations by taking an assumed /hypothetical and calculate the variance by taking the difference b/w the value given and hypothesed mean b. Calculate the total variance of the rows and column and also grand total T c. Calculate the correction factor as T/N, where N is the number of items
2. Calculate the sum of the squares b/w columns by, a. Square the columns totals dividing each total by number of items included in it, adding these figures and than subtracting the correction factor(T/N) from them. b. Df in this case will be (c-1) 3. Calculate the sum of the squares b/w rows by, a. Square the rows totals dividing each total by number of items included in it, adding these figures and than subtracting the correction factor(T/N) from them. b. Df in this case will be (r-1)
4. Calculate total sum of squares by, a. Adding the squares of all the items in the table and subtracting the correction factor therefrom, b. Df in this case will be N-1 5. The above information will be presented in the table of ANOVA in the following form as;
Source of Variations
B/W Samples
Sum of squares
SSC
df
Within Samples SSR MSR=SSR/(r-1) MSR/MSE Residual or Error SSE (c-1)(r-1) MSE= SSE/(c-1)(r-1) Total SST n-1
c-1 r-1
MSC/MSE
SST = Total sum of squares of variations SSC= Sum of squares b/w columns SSR = Sum of squares within rows SSE = Sum of Squares due to error. Total df is N-1 or cr-1
Q.N. 1. What is hypothesis, discuss its different types along with suitable examples?.Also explain the procedure of testing hypothesis. Q.N. 2. In a test given to two groups of students, the marks obtained are : 1Group :18 20 36 50 49 36 34 49 41 2 Group:29 28 26 35 30 44 46 Examine the significance of difference between the marks secured by the students of the two groups. Given : For
What is hypothesis and what are the different types of errors. Also explain the test of significance in hypothesis testing. Q.N. 2. In a test given to group of students, the marks obtained before and after the coaching are :
Before 18 After 29 20 28 36 26 50 35 49 30 36 44 34 46 49 45 41 34
Q.N. 1.