BTY343

have an important place in our day-to-day life. are called protective foods. India is one of the largest producers of fruits and vegetables in the World Indias geographical location and topography provides an excellent opportunity to produce every thing in our country. round the year availability of fruits and vegetables provides passive response towards commercial processing . people also have poor acceptability of processed foods. often led to glut, more post harvest losses besides less contribution of processed foods a considerable amount of this produce in lost due to negligence and improper post harvest handling, which amounts to be 25 to 30%.

our country is one of the highest producer of the fruits and vegetables but productivity is significantly lower in most of the fruits and vegetables as per the international bench mark . The lower yields are mainly due to poor quality of planting material including varieties, unplanned farm management practices like fertilizer, water management and small farm holding. One of the reason is the varieties have poor recovery of process product for i.e. Indian tomatoes have 4 o Bx of total solids whereas varieties in European countries have 6 oBx. Thus, to produce same quantity of tomato end product 50% more tomatoes are required in our country.

Fruits and vegetables processing industry ranks 5th in its size Annual turnover of fruit and vegetable industry is Rs. 1800 billion and out of which Rs. 1400 billion are from unorganized sector. Importance of fruits and vegetables: Employed in the preparation of preserves, in cooking and in fermented and non fermented beverages Rich source of carbohydrate, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibre

Dietary fibre has both direct and indirect advantages. Provide a variety in taste, interest and aesthetic appeal. Role of fibre in minimizing the occurences of health diseases related with affluent life style. Benefits relate to role in kidney function, prevention of cancer and cardiac disorders through its contribution of ascorbic acid, beta carotene and non starch polysaccharides Carotene and vitamin C are known for reducing the cancer risks by enhancing the tumor surveillance by immune system.

Fruits and vegetables are living organisms and are highly perishable No. of factors result in postharvest spoilage. Physical causes of post harvest spoilage: Loss of moisture, causing wilting/shrinkage Loss of stored energye.g. carbohydrates Loss of other food constituents e.g. vitamins Physical losses through pest and disease attack Loss of quality due to physiological disorders Greening (potatoes) Seed germination Root or shoot growth

The fruit is derived from the Latin word fructose which means to enjoy, produce. The fruit is a product of fertilization and is a ripened ovary. Fruits are classified into : pome (apple and pear); stone (mango, peach, plum, cherry), berry (strawberry, tomato); nut (walnut, cashewnut); hesperidium (citrus); synconium (fig), sorosis (mulberry); coenocarp (jack fruit) and syncarp (custard apple).

The vegetables develop from variety of plant parts (cabbage pea, potato). On the basis of plant parts used as vegetables they are grouped as: fruits (gourds, brinjal, capsicum); stem (asparagus, amaranths), leaves (cabbage, lettuce, spinach) flowers (broccoli, cauliflower) and underground portion (radish, carrot, potato, onion, garlic).

For processing or storage purpose fruits are also classified as climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. The climacteric fruits are those, which develop total senescence sometime after the harvest during storage. For e.g. apple, banana, ber, fig, guava, mango, pear, peach, papaya, sapota, tomato. Whereas non-climacteric fruits ripen on the plants. for i.e. citrus, grape, litchi, pineapple, pomegranate, strawberry etc. The climacteric fruits have high rate of respiration and production of carbon dioxide and ethylene than the non-climacteric fruits during the process of ripening. It leads to change in colour, flvaour, texture and some chemical changes.

Cell Wall Cell wall is the outermost tough and rigid layer, which comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and at other times, lignin. The prime functions of cell wall are protection, giving structural support . Cell Membrane Cell membrane, also called plasma membrane, is present inside the cell wall and surrounds the cytoplasm. It connects the intracellular components (organelles and cytoplasm) with the extracellular environment, and helps in protection and transportation. The cell membrane is permeable to specific substances only.

Plasmodesmata Plasmodesma (plural plasmodesmata) is a small opening, which connects plant cells with each other. this connecting channel enables transport of materials and allows communication between the cells. In a single plant cell, about 1,000-100,000 plasmodesmata are present. Nuclear Membrane it is the outer covering of the nucleus. It separates the cytoplasmic contents from the nuclear contents. minute pores (nuclear pores) are present for exchanging materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleus Nucleus is a specialized organelle, which contains the plant's hereditary material i.e. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Inside the nucleus, a dense, spherical body called nucleolus is present. The nucleus contains structures, which regulates the cell cycle, growth, protein synthesis and reproductive function.

Vacuole Vacuoles are large membrane-bound compartments, which store water and compounds. They function as storage, excretory and secretory organelles. The membrane surrounding a vacuole is called tonoplast. A mature plant cell has a single vacuole at the near center of the cell (central vacuole), which contributes to about 30-80 percent of the cell's volume. Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is filled up by cytosol, which is a gelatinous and semitransparent fluid. All the organelles of the plant cell are present in this cytoplasm. This part of the plant cell is the site for cell division, glycolysis and many other cellular activities. Plastid (Chloroplast) Plastids are organelles responsible for photosynthetic activity, manufacturing and storage of chemical compounds in plants. Chloroplast is an important form of plastid containing chlorophyll pigment, which helps in harvesting light energy and converting it to chemical energy. Likewise, chromoplast and other plastids are present in a plant cell.

Mitochondria Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are oblong shaped organelles, which are also known as 'the powerhouse of the cell'. They are responsible for breaking down complex carbohydrate and sugar molecules to simpler forms, which the plants can use. Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) organelle plays a major role in manufacturing and storage of chemical compounds, like glycogen and steroids. It is also involved in translation and transportation of protein. ER is also connected to the nuclear membrane, so as to make a channel between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Golgi Apparatus It is an organelle responsible for processing of macromolecules (like carbohydrates, proteins and fats) and packaging them into membrane-bound vesicles for transportation purposes. Golgi bodies are present near to the nucleus of the plant cell. Ribosome Ribosomes are organelles, which are made up of 60% RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and 40% protein, and play an important role in protein translation. main site of protein synthesis is ribosome.

Microbodies Microbodies are single, membrane-bound, globular shaped organelles, which are found in the cytoplasm. They range in size from 0.5-1 micrometer, and contain degradative enzymes. Many kinds of microbodies are present in a plant cell, of which the two most common types are peroxisomes and glyoxysomes. Microtubules Microtubules are straight, hollow, tubular cylinders, which are major elements of the cytoskeleton. These plant cell structures are involved in synthesizing cell wall. Function wise, they are crucial for structural support, cell division and transport of vesicles. Microfilaments the microfilaments are responsible for giving structural support, flexibility and shape to the cell.

Water: The body has three sources of water: (1) ingested water and beverages, including fruit juices, (2) the water content of solid foods, and (3) metabolic water. Fruits have a high percentage of water that ranges from 70% to 95% of the eatable part of the fruit . For this reason, they are, together with vegetables, a very good source of water in the diet within the solid foods. The content of water in a fruit may be greatly affected by the processing technology, some technologies used to increase the shelf life of fruits do so through the reduction of their water content. water content of a fruit also changes during maturation,

carbohydrates are the main component of fruits and vegetables and represent more than 90% of their dry matter. The main monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. Their concentration may change depending on the degree of maturation of the fruit. Other monosaccharides, such as galactose, arabinose, and xylose, are present in minimal amounts

Sucrose is the most abundant oligosaccharide in fruits; Starch is present in very low amounts in fruits, since its concentration decreases during maturation. The only exception is banana that may have concentrations of starch higher than 3% During food processing, carbohydrates are mainly involved in two kinds of reactions: on heating they darken in color or caramelize, and some of them combine with proteins to give dark colors known as the browning reaction.

Fiber is often referred to as unavailable carbohydrate. The major components of dietary fiber are the polysaccharides celluloses, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, and mucilages. classified as water soluble and insoluble. Gums, mucilages, some hemicelluloses, and pectins are part of the soluble fiber. Celluloses, hemicelluloses, and lignins are insoluble fibers.

Dietary fiber is present in fruits in amounts that may be as high as 7% of the eatable part of the fruit Fat : Fat content in fruits is in general very low. However, avocado (1216%), the lipid levels are higher. In avocado, the most abundant fatty acids are palmitic, palmitoleic,stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, but the amounts may change a lot with the variety, maturity, processing, and storage conditions

Proteins: Nitrogenated compounds are present in fruits in low percentages (0.11.5%). From a quantitative point of view, fruits are not a good source of proteins, however, in general berries are a better source than the rest of the fruits.

VITAMIN C: Vitamin C is an essential nutrient for humans; we cannot synthesize vitamin C, and therefore must acquire it from the diet. For adults, dietary needs are met by a minimum intake of 60 mg/day. The primary contributors to daily vitamin intake are fruit juices (21% of total), whereas all fruits together contributed nearly 45% of total vitamin C intake. Relatively high amounts of vitamin C are found in strawberries and citrus fruits, although the availability of vitamin C within these food sources will be influenced by numerous factors.

rich sources of vitamin C are blackcurrant (200 mg/100 g), strawberry (60 mg/100 g), and the citrus fruits (3050 mg/100 g). Vitamin E : Vitamin E is the generic term for a family of related compounds known as tocopherols and tocotrienols. The richest sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils and the products made from them, followed by bread and bakery products and nuts. Vegetables and fruits contain little amount of vitamin E

Thiamin (vitamin B-1), riboflavin (vitamin B-2), niacin (vitamin B-3), and pyridoxine (vitamin B6),are used as coenzymes in all parts of the body. They participate in the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. They are important for the structure and function of the nervous system Minerals : An adequate intake of minerals is essential for a high nutritional quality of the diet, it also contributes to the prevention of chronic nutrition related diseases.

Iron : Iron (Fe) is an essential nutrient that carries oxygen and forms part of the oxygencarrying proteins, hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle. It is also a necessary component of various enzymes. Body iron is concentrated in the storage forms, ferritin and hemosiderin, in bone marrow, liver, and spleen. Body iron stores can usually be estimated from the amount of ferritin protein in serum.

The main inhibitory substances are phytic acid from cereal grains and legumes such as soy, and polyphenol compounds from beverages such as tea and coffee. The main enhancers of iron absorption are ascorbic acid from fruits and vegetables, and the partially digested peptides from muscle tissues

Approximately 99% of total body calcium is in the skeleton and teeth, and 1% is in the blood and soft tissues. The dietary recommendations vary with age. An amount of 1300 mg/day for individuals aged 918 years, 1000 mg/day for individuals aged 19 50 years, and 1200 mg/day for individuals over the age of 51 years. Calcium is present in variable amounts in all the foods and water we consume, although vegetables are one of the main sources.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential mineral that is found in all cells within the body. The body of the human adult contains about 400500 g. The greatest amount of body phosphorus can be found primarily in bone (85%) and muscle (14%). Phosphorus is primarily found as phosphate (PO42). The inorganic constituents of bone are primarily a calcium phosphate salt. for youth 918 years, the RDA is 1250 mg, which indicates the higher need for phosphorus during the adolescent growth. Adults 19 years and older have a RDA of 700 mg

Magnesium (Mg) is the fourth most abundant cation in the body, with 60% in the bone and 40% distributed equally between muscle and nonmuscular soft tissue. Only 1% of magnesium is extracellular. Magnesium has an important role in at least 300 fundamental enzymatic reactions it has a key role in neurotransmission and immune function. The RDAs for magnesium are 320 and 420 mg/day for women and men (adults over 30 years), respectively

Potassium (K) in the form of K+ is the most essential cation of the cells. Its high intracellular concentration is regulated by the cell membrane through the sodium potassium pump. Most of the total body potassium is found in muscle tissue The estimated minimum requirement for potassium for adolescents and adults is 2000 mg or 50 mEq/day. The usual dietary intake for adults is about 100 mEq/day

Sodium acts in consort with potassium to maintain proper body water distribution and blood pressure. Sodium is also important in maintaining the proper acidbase balance and in the transmission of nerve impulses The RDAs for sodium ranges from 120 mg/day for infants to 500 mg/day for adults and children above 10 years.

Carotenoids : are lipid-soluble plant pigments common in photosynthetic plants. - and carotene,lutein, lycopene zeaxanthin, and - and cryptoxanthin are most commonly consumed and are most prevalent in human plasma

The most common sterols in fruits are -sitosterol, and its 22dehydro analogue stigmasterol, campesterol and Avenasterol Plant sterols are not endogenously synthesized in humans, therefore, are derived from the diet entering the body only via intestinal absorption. Since plant sterols competitively inhibit cholesterol intestinal uptake, a major metabolic effect of dietary plant sterols is the inhibition of absorption and subsequent compensatory stimulation of the synthesis of cholesterol. The ultimate effect is the lowering of serum cholesterol Consequently, the higher the dietary intake of plant sterols from the diet, the lower is the cholesterol absorption and the lower is the serum cholesterol level

Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable commodities with active metabolism during the post-harvest period. On removal from the parent plant, vegetative parts, such as fruits, roots, stems etc are deprived of their normal supply of minerals, water, and also in some instances, simple organic molecules [e.g. sugars, hormones] that normally would be translocated from other parts of the plant.

Although the photosynthetic activity is negligible, most tissues remain capable of transforming many of the constituents already present in them. The kind and intensity of physiological activity in detached plants determines their storage longevity. Some plant parts, such as seeds, fleshy roots, tubers, bulbs are morphologically and physiologically adapted to maintain the tissue in a dormant state until environmental conditions are favourable for germination or growth. Metabolic activity, though depressed, is not completely halted in such tissues. Fleshy fruits are unusual in that maturation is followed by a ripening process, which is associated with the development of optimal eating quality.

Carbohydrate : Sugars are important for pleasing fruit flavour (sugar acid ratio), attractive colour and texture. As the ripening starts these sugars undergo metabolic transformation both quantitatively and qualitatively. Most of the soluble carbohydrates are metabolized completely as the fruit ripens. Pectic substances and cellulose are the reserve carbohydrates that also serve as potential sources of acids, sugars and other respiratory substances during ripening.

Green or raw fruit usually contains starch in abundance, but is short in soluble sugars that provides sweetness to it. During ripening, the starch is enzymatically [hydrolysis by alpha- and beta-amylases] converted into sugars. Thus, the major bulk of carbohydrate fraction of a fully ripened fruit consists of sugars. The sugars commonly found in fruits are glucose and fructose [invert sugars] and sucrose.

Organic Acids :The organic acids are among the major cellular constituent undergoing changes during ripening. In most of the fruits there is a considerable decrease in the acidity of fruits during ripening. The sourness of fruits is due to the presence of organic acids like citric, malic, succinic, tartaric, oxalic etc. These acids usually decide the quality of fruits as the blending of sugar and acids render the fruits tasty, besides flavour. concentration considerably changes as the fruits ripen. In fruits like oranges, the acids are converted enzymatically into sugars rendering them sweet as they ripen, whereas there is no change in lemons. So they remain sour till they start decaying. But, in some fruits like mangoes, there is a considerable decrease in acidity when the fruits fully ripen. This is probably due to the utilization of these acids in respiration through Krebs Cycle. Generally, in fruits the total acidity shows a decrease with the increase in ripeness of the fruits.

Amino Acids and Proteins : The nitrogen content of fruit is due to proteins forming insoluble fraction and the soluble fraction comprised of amino acids. The total nitrogen content of fruits at the early stages is high, but with the advancement in growth, shows gradual decrease. This is probably due to the increase in other constituents like water, starch, sugar, organic acids etc. During ripening, the total nitrogen may show a further decrease in some cases.

Lipids : Phospholipids occur in the cytoplasm and in many structural units of plant tissues. They are physiologically more important than neutral lipids in storage organs. Considerable increases in the level of total lipids and fatty acids have been observed in ripening mango in contrast to many fruits and vegetables. However in fatty fruits of avocado the oil composition during maturation remains more or less constant.

Chlorophyll : Disappearance of green colour marks the initiation of ripening in most of the fruits. Chlorophyll content of ripening fruit decreases universally. Carotenoids : A dramatic synthesis of carotenoids occur during the last step of ripening. It has been reported that the levels of precursors of carotene biosynthesis increases progressively during ripening. Other Pigments : The colour imparted to raw or ripe fruits and vegetables are due to presence of various pigments. The pigments of different tissues are the chlorophylls (green), anthocyanin [reddish to purple], flavonoids [yellow], leucoanthocyanins [colorless], tannins [colorless to yellow or brown], betalains [red], quinones and xanthones [yellowish] and carotenoids [yellow and red].

During storage some of these pigments undergo considerable changes. Carotenoids formation and destruction may be affected by the storage conditions. In certain instances, these reactions are stimulated by O2, inhibited by light and high temperature. Anthocyanin synthesis is stimulated by light and is often affected by temperature. Purple colour of red cabbage intensifies when stored below 10o C. Chlorophyll degradation is accompanied by synthesis of other pigments as the fruits ripen. Chlorophyll metabolism is markedly influenced by environmental parameters, such as light, temperature and humidity and the effects of these factors are specific for the tissues. For example, light accelerates degradation of chlorophyll in ripening tomatoes and promotes formation of the chlorophyll pigment in cold stored potatoes.

Tannins : The tannins and other polyphenolic constituents are present in abundant quantities in immature, raw or developing fruits. As the maturity and ripening progresses the total polyphenolic content reduces gradually. Pectic Substances : The most obvious changes during ripening of fruit are the alteration in texture. The plant cell wall is made up of cellulose fibrils embedded in a matrix consisting largely of pectic substances, hemicellulose, proteins, lignins etc and water. Cell wall and middle lamella components increase during development of fruits, but as the fruit ripens the content of soluble pectates and pectinates increase, while total pectic substances decrease.

The cell walls are surrounded by parenchymatous cells, which will absorb water and generate hydrostatic pressure within the living cells. This is called turgor pressure that gives the desirable property of crispness to the commodity. During storage, the loss of moisture due to transpiration and respiration results in the loss of crispness or the turgidity of the commodity. During ripening, the protopectin, which is insoluble decreases in quantity and the soluble pectin content rises, thereby making the flesh less firm or soft.

Volatile Products: Each fruit has specific aroma which ripened fruit emanates. Although different fruits vary in nature of volatile compounds, they are emitted in noticeable amount only when the fruit starts ripening. Although the degree of maturity is the main physiological factor affecting aroma production, the aroma composition is also affected by environmental conditions during maturation. In overripe fruits mostly alcohol and esters are formed when fermentation develops.

One of the marked differences between an unripe and ripe fruit is the intensity of flavour of the fruit. The flavour of fruits or vegetables are considered to originate by the presence of basic constituents Besides ethylene, a number of other volatile odorous constituents like amyl esters of formic, acetic, valeric and caprylic acids are present. These organic emanations produced during ripening of fruits contribute to the aroma of fruits and hence are of considerable importance from the standpoint of fruit quality.

Enzymes : Enzyme action is responsible for many chemical and physical effects during ripening. Softening of fruits, conversion of starch to sugar or vice versa, changes in amino acid content, and enzymes bring changes in color. The change from starch to sugar, sucrose to invert sugar or protopectin to pectinic acid are all due to enzymic reactions. Oxidative enzymes like catalase and peroxidase were shown to have increased to a considerable extent in Alphonso and Neelam varieties of mangoes during ripening as indicated by the higher rate of respiration