Chapter 11 Security and Ethics

Objectives
You will be able to describe: y The role of the operating system with regard to system security y The effects of system security practices on overall system performance y The levels of system security that can be implemented and the threats posed by evolving technologies y The differences between computer viruses and worms, and how they spread y The difficulties of teaching ethics to user groups and the role of education in system security
Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Role of the Operating System in Security

y Operating system plays a key role in computer system security
y Any vulnerability at the operating system level opens the entire

system to attack y The more complex and powerful the operating system, the more likely it is to have vulnerabilities to attack
y System administrators must be on guard to arm their

operating systems with all available defenses against attack

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

System Survivability
y Capability of a system to fulfill its mission, in a timely

manner, in the presence of attacks, failures, or accidents y Key properties of survivable systems:
y Resistance to attacks y Recognition of attacks and resulting damage y Recovery of essential services after an attack y Adaptation and evolution of system defense mechanisms to

lessen future attacks

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

System Survivability (continued)

Table 11.1: Four key properties of a survivable system

5 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Levels of Protection
System administrator must evaluate the risk of intrusion for each computer configuration, which in turn depends on the level of connectivity given to the system

Table 11.2: A simplified comparison of security protection required for three typical computer configurations
6 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Backup and Recovery

y Backup and recovery policies are essential for most

computing systems y Many system managers use a layered backup schedule y Backups, with one set stored off-site, are crucial to disaster recovery y Written policies and procedures and regular user training are essential elements of system management

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Backup and Recovery

y Written security procedures should recommend:
y Frequent password changes y Reliable backup procedures y Guidelines for loading new software y Compliance with software licenses y Network safeguards y Guidelines for monitoring network activity y Rules for terminal access

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Security Breaches
y A gap in system security can be malicious or not y Intrusions can be classified as:
y Due to uneducated users and unauthorized access to system

resources y Purposeful disruption of the systems operation y Purely accidental

y Examples: Hardware malfunctions, undetected errors in OS or applications,

or natural disasters

y Malicious or not, a breach of security severely damages the

systems credibility
Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Unintentional Intrusions
y Any breach of security or modification of data that was not

the result of a planned intrusion y Examples:

y Accidental incomplete modification of data y When nonsynchronized processes access data records and modify some but not all of a records fields y Errors due to incorrect storage of data values y e.g., When the field isnt large enough to hold the numeric value stored there

10

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Unintentional Intrusions (continued)

Figure 11.1: (a) Original data value in a field large enough to hold it. If the field is too small, (b) FORTRAN replaces the data with asterisks, (c) COBOL truncates the higher order digits and stores only the digits that remain
11 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Attacks
y Types of Intentional attacks: y Intentional unauthorized access y e.g., denial of service attacks, browsing, wire tapping,

repeated trials, trap doors, and trash collection y Viruses and worms y Trojan Horses y Bombs y Blended threats

12

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access

y Denial of service (DoS) attacks:
y Synchronized attempts to deny service to authorized users by

causing a computer to perform repeated unproductive task

y Browsing:
y Unauthorized users gain access to search through secondary

storage directories or files for information they should not have the privilege to read

13

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

y Wire Tapping: Unauthorized users monitor or modify a

users transmission
y Passive wire tapping: Refers to just listening to the

transmission but not changing the contents, and reasons include:

y To copy data while bypassing any authorization procedures y To collect specific information such as password

y Active wire tapping: Data being sent is modified y Methods include between lines transmission and piggyback entry

14

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

y Repeated Trials: To enter systems by guessing authentic

passwords y Trap doors: An unspecified and undocumented entry point to the system
y Installed by a system diagnostician or programmer for future

use y Leaves the system vulnerable to future intrusion

y Trash collection: Use of discarded materials such as disks,

CDs, printouts, etc., to enter the system illegally

15

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

Table 11.3: Average time required to guess passwords up to ten alphabetic characters (A-Z) using brute force
16 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

y Malicious attacks on computers may violate state and federal law

under the Federal Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 y Those convicted have been sentenced to significant fines and jail terms, as well as confiscation of their computer equipment y In the U.S., attempts to intrude into your system should be reported to the FBI

17

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Viruses
y Small programs written to alter the way a computer operates, y y y y

without permission of the user Must meet two criteria: It must be self-executing and selfreplicating Usually written to attack a certain operating system Spread via a wide variety of applications Macro virus works by attaching itself to a template (such as NORMAL.DOT), which in turn is attached to word processing documents
Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

18

Viruses (continued)

19

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Figure 11.2: A file infector virus attacks a clean file (a) by attaching a small program to it (b)

Viruses (continued)

20

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Table 11.4: Types of viruses

Viruses (continued)

Table 11.4 (continued): Types of viruses

21 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Worms and Trojan Horses

y Worm: A memory-resident program that copies itself from

one system to the next without requiring the aid of an infected program file
y Results in slower processing time of real work y Especially destructive on networks

y Trojan Horse: A destructive program thats disguised as a

legitimate or harmless program

y Allows the programs creator to secretly access users system

22

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Bombs and Blended Threats

y Logic bomb: A destructive program with a fuse a certain

triggering event (such as a keystroke or connection with the Internet)

y Spreads unnoticed throughout a network

y Time bomb: A destructive program triggered by a specific

time, such as a day of the year y Blended Threat: Combines into one program the characteristics of other attacks
y e.g., including a virus, worm, Trojan Horse, spyware, and other

malicious code into a single program

23

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Blended Threats (continued)

Blended Threats: (continued) y Characteristics of blended threat:
y Harms the affected system y Spreads to other systems using multiple methods y Attacks other systems from multiple points y Propagates without human intervention y Exploits vulnerabilities of target systems

y Protection: Combination of defenses in combination with

regular patch management

24 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

System Protection
y No single guaranteed method of protection y System vulnerabilities include:
y File downloads, e-mail exchange y Vulnerable firewalls y Improperly configured Internet connections, etc.

y Need for continuous attention to security issues y System protection is multifaceted and protection methods

include:
y Use of antivirus software, firewalls, restrictive access and

encryption
25 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Antivirus Software
y Software to combat viruses can be preventive, diagnostic, or

both
y Preventive programs may calculate a checksum for each

production program y Diagnostic software compares file sizes, looks for replicating instructions or unusual file activity
y Can sometimes remove the infection and leave the remainder

intact y Unable to repair worms, Trojan horses, or blended threats as they are malicious code in entirety
26 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Antivirus Software (continued)

Table 11.5: Websites containing current information on systems security

27 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Antivirus Software (continued)

Figure 11.4: (a) Uninfected file; (b) file infected with a virus; (c) a Trojan horse or worm consists entirely of malicious code
28 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Firewalls
y A set of hardware and/or software designed to protect a

system by disguising its IP address from unauthorized users y Sits between the Internet and network y Blocks curious inquiries and potentially dangerous intrusions from outside the system y Mechanisms used by the firewall to perform various tasks include:
y Packet filtering y Proxy servers

29

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Firewalls (continued)

Figure 11.5: Firewall sitting between campus networks and Internet, filtering requests for access
30 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Firewalls (continued)
y Typical tasks of the firewall are to:
y Log activities that access the internet y Maintain access control based on senders or receivers IP

addresses y Maintain access control based on services that are requested y Hide internal network from unauthorized users y Verify that virus protection is installed and enforced y Perform authentication based on the source of a request from the Internet

31

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Firewalls (continued)
y Packet filtering:
y Firewall reviews header information for incoming and outgoing

Internet packets to verify authenticity of source address, destination address, and protocol
y Proxy server:
y Hides important network information from outsiders by making

network server invisible y Determines if request for access to the network is valid y Proxy servers are invisible to users but are critical to the success of the firewall

32

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Authentication
y Authentication: A verification that an individual trying to

access a system is authorized to do so y Kerberos: A network authentication protocol

y Need for password encryption to improve network security led to

development of Kerberos y Designed to provide strong authentication for client/server applications y Uses strong cryptography y Requires systematic revocation of access rights from clients who no longer deserve to have access
33 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Authentication (continued)

Figure 11.6: Using Kerberos, when client A attempts to access server B, user is authenticated (a) and receives a ticket for the session (b). Once the ticket is issued, client and server can communicate at will (c). Without the ticket, access is not granted
34 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Encryption
y Most extreme protection method for sensitive data where data

is put into a secret code

y To communicate with another system, data is encrypted,

transmitted, decrypted, and processed y Sender inserts public key with the message y Message receiver required to have private key to decode the message
y Disadvantages:
y Increases systems overhead y System becomes totally dependent on encryption process itself

35

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Sniffers and Spoofing

y Sniffers: Programs that reside on computers attached to the

network
y Peruse data packets as they pass by, examine each one for

specific information y e.g., Particularly problematic in wireless networks

y Spoofing: Assailant fakes IP addresses of an Internet server

by changing the address recorded in packets it sends over the Internet

y Used when unauthorized users want to disguise themselves as

friendly sites
Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

36

Password Management
y Most basic techniques used to protect hardware and software

investments include:
y Good passwords y Careful user training

y Password Construction:
y Good password is unusual, memorable, and changed often y Password files normally stored in encrypted form y Password length has a direct effect on the ability of password to

survive password cracking attempts

37

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

38

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Figure 11.8: Password verification flowchart

Password Construction (continued)

Table 11.6: Number of combinations of passwords depending on their length and available character set
39 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

y Reliable techniques for generating a good password:
y Use minimum of eight characters, including numbers and

nonalphanumeric characters y Create a misspelled word or join bits of phrases into a word thats easy to remember y Follow a certain pattern on the keyboard y Create acronyms from memorable sentences y Use upper and lowercase characters if allowed y Never use a word thats included in any dictionary

40

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

y Dictionary attack: A method of breaking encrypted

passwords
y Requirements: y A copy of the encrypted password file y Algorithm used to encrypt the passwords y Prevention: y Some operating systems salt user passwords with extra random bits to make them less vulnerable to dictionary attacks

41

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Alternatives
y Use of a smart card
y A credit card-sized calculator that requires both something you

have and something you know y Displays a constantly changing multidigit number synchronized with an identical number generator in the system y User must type in the number that appears at that moment on the smart card y For added protection, user then enters a secret code y User is admitted to the system only if both number and code are validated

42

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Alternatives (continued)

y Biometrics:
y The science and technology of identifying individuals based on

unique biological characteristics of each person y Current research focuses on

y Analysis of the human face, fingerprints, hand measurements, iris/retina, and

voice prints

y Positively identifies the person being scanned y Critical factor is reducing the margin of error y Presently, biometric authentication is expensive

43

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Social Engineering
y A technique whereby system intruders gain access to

information about a legitimate user to learn active passwords by

y Looking in and around the users desk for a written reminder y Trying the user logon ID as the password y Searching logon scripts y Telephoning friends and co-workers to learn the names of users

family members, pets, vacation destinations, favorite hobbies, car model, etc.

44

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Social Engineering (continued)

y Phishing: Intruder pretends to be a legitimate entity and

contacts unwary users asking them to reconfirm their personal and/or financial information
y Example: 2003 incident involving eBay customers

y Default passwords:
y y y y

Pose unique vulnerabilities because they are widely known Routinely shipped with hardware or software Routinely passed from one hacker to the next Should be changed immediately

45

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Ethics
y Ethical behavior: Be good. Do good.
y IEEE and ACM issued a standard of ethics in 1992 y Apparent lack of ethics in computing is a significant departure

from other professions

y Consequences of ethical lapses:
y Illegally copied software can result in lawsuits and fines y Plagiarism is illegal and punishable by law y Eavesdropping on e-mail, data, or voice communications is

sometimes illegal and usually unwarranted

46

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Ethics (continued)
y Consequences of ethical lapses: (continued)
y Cracking (malicious hacking) causes systems owner and users to

question the validity of systems data y Unethical use of technology is clearly the wrong thing to do
y Specific activities to teach ethics can include:
y Publish policies that clearly state which actions will and will not be

condoned y Teach a regular seminar on the subject including real-life case histories y Conduct open discussions of ethical questions
47 Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Summary
y Cant overemphasize the importance of keeping the system y y y y

secure System is only as good as the integrity of the data thats stored on it A single breach of security whether catastrophic or not, whether accidental or not damages the systems integrity Damaged integrity threatens the viability of the best-designed system, its managers, its designers, and its users Vigilant security precautions are essential

48

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition