Electrical Power Systems

References
Electrical power ( Dr\ S.L. Uppa ) Elements of power system analysis ( William Stevenson ) Modern power system analysis ( I.J.Nagrath , D.R. Kothari )

Elements of power system .

1. Power stations . 2. Substations . 3. Busbars . 4. Primary T.L and secondary T.L .

Step Up Transformer Power Station

Step down Transformer

Transmission Line 1 S 11/500 kV Busbars 500/220 kV

TL2

220/66 kV Loads

66/11 kV

11kV/380V

Elements of Power System

Standard voltages .
1. Generation voltages . 3.3 , 6.6 , 11 , 33 KV 2. Transmission line voltage . 11 , 33 , 66 , 110 , 132 KV 3. Distribution high voltages . 11 , 6.6 KV 4. Distribution low voltages . 380 , 220 KV

Standard voltages In Egypt .

T.L voltages 66 , 220 KV and 500 KV from High Dam to Cairo

Power stations
Types of power stations : 1. Thermal power stations . 2. Hydro power stations . 3. Nuclear power stations . 4. Gas power stations .

Thermal power stations

It dependents on coal and petrol to heat the water in big boilers under high pressure to transfer the water to steam

Turbine

Generator BB

Coal Burner

Condenser

Cooler

Boiler Pump Thermal Power Station

Advantages of this stations .

1. 2. 3. 4. It has low construction ( primary ) cost . It uses small area to construct . No trembles ( vibrations ) . It can be constructed in minimum time compared to Hydro and Nuclear power stations . 5. It can be constructed near to the load .

Disadvantages
1. Running costs are high because it uses coal and solar . 2. The response is very low to supply the increasing in load . 3. It is not clean and causes more pollution . 4. It has low efficiency ( 25 : 40 %) .

Some of consideration must be taken

1. It must near to source of water . 2. It must near to transmitted tools . 3. It needs to strong land which has low price . 4. We can extend the station.

Hydro power stations

It depends on two deferent levels in the river.

Advantages of this stations .

1. Running cost is very low because it depends on water . 2. The response is very high to supply the sudden increasing in load. 3. It is clean . 4. Efficiency is equal ( 90 : 95 %) .

Disadvantages
1. 2. 3. 4. It has high construction cost . It has high T.L costs . Constructed far from the loads . Takes more time to construct .

Nuclear power stations

When Uranium 235 is crashed with neutrons, releasing neutrons and heat energy . These neutrons then participate in the chain reaction of fashioning more atoms.

Control rots

Heat exchanger Steam

Turbine CO2

Generator

Reactor Fuel rots (Uranium 235)

Water Condenser Nuclear Power Station

Advantages and disadvantages are similar to hydro power station added to that it has higher protection cost ands and it is constructed in the desert.

Gas power stations

It depends on the outage of gases from the refine petrol factory which produces high pressure gas, (in the Max and Tebein in Egypt) .

Series impedance of T.L .

It has four parameters : resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance. Conductance is between the conductors and between conductors and the ground through the insulators as a leakage current. The resistance and inductance are uniformly distributed along the line.

Types of conductors .
1.Copper conductor . 2.Aluminum conductor . 3.Aluminum conductor, steel reinforced Aluminum conductors have replaced copper because of the much lower cost and lighter weight.

Resistance
Resistance causes power loss in the T.L. For uniform resistance ,

R ! VL a

Relation between resistance and temperature rise .

( R 2 R 1 ) ! (T  t 2 ) (T  t 1 )
t
T R

The influence of skin effect on resistance

Uniform distribution of current throughout the cross-section of a conductor exists only for D.C. In A.C, as increased of frequency, the nonuniformly of distribution of current becomes more appearance . This case is called skin effect.

The alternating flux induces higher voltages acting on the interior filaments than are induced on filaments near the surface of the conductor .
La Xa Za Lb Xb Zb
r

Ia % Ib

rrr

Definition of inductance
Induced voltage related to change of flux linkage is :
e ! d ] dt (1)

Where, is the flux linkages of the circuit in weber-turns ( wbt ) .

 When the current in a circuit is changing, the induced voltage must be changing as a proportional ratio as :

e w di dt
e ! L (di dt ) (2)

Where, L is the constant of proportionality inductance of circuit.

From equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ),

L ! d] di

If the relation between ( ) and current ( i ) is linear :

L !] i
where, ( i ) and ( ) is the instantaneous current and flux linkages .

 For sinusoidal alternating current, flux linkages are sinusoidal , where is the phasor expression as :
] ! L .I ( phasor flux linkages )

The phasor voltage drop due to flux

linkages is : V ! J [ LI ! J []

 Mutual inductance between two circuits

is defined as the flux linkage of one circuit due to the current in the second circuit as :

M 12 ! ] 12 I 2
Where, I2 produces flux linkages 12 with circuit 1.

 The phasor voltage drop in circuit 1 caused by flux linkages of circuit 2 is:
V 1 ! J [ M 12 I 2 ! J [] 12

Mutual inductance is important in considering the influence of power lines on telephone lines and the coupling between parallel power lines .

Inductance of a conductor due to internal flux .

The correct value of inductance due to internal flux can be computed as the ratio of flux linkages to current .To obtain an accurate value for the inductance of a transmission line , it is necessary to consider the flux inside each conductor as well as the external flux . Let us consider the long cylindrical conductor whose cross section is shown in fig.

H x ! I x 2T x (3) B x ! Q H x ! Q (I x 2T x )
N x ! B x dx ! Q (I x 2T x ) dx

Assuming uniform current density :

(I x T x 2 ) ! (I T r 2 )

Where, I is the total current in the conductor.

@ I x ! I (T x 2 T r 2 ) ! I ( x 2 r 2 ) (4)

From equation ( 4 ) in equation ( 3 ) .

H x ! I ( x 2T x r ) ! I ( x 2T r )
2

AT / m

B x ! Q H x ! Q ( xI 2T r 2 )
The flux /meter of length is :

wb / m 2

d N ! Q ( xI 2T r ) dx
2

wb / m

The flux linkages d] of length are the product of the flux per meter of length and the fraction of the current linkage .
d ] ! (T x T r ) d N
2 2

! ( Q Ix 3 2T r 4 ) dx
] int ! ( Q Ix 3 2T r 4 ) dx ! ( Q I 8T )
0 r

wbt / m
wbt / m

Where,

Q ! Qr Q 0

Assuming ,

Qr ! 1

Q0 ! 4T v 107 H /m @ ] int ! (I 2) v 107 wbt / m

L int ! (] int I ) ! 0.5 v 107

H /m

Flux linkages between two points external to an isolated conductor . In the Fig. P1 and P2 are two points at distance D1 and D2 from the center of the conductor which carries a current of (I) :
H x ! (I 2T x )
@ B x ! Q (I 2T x )

AT / m
wb / m 2

The flux linkages between P1 and P2 are:

D2

] 12 !

D1

(Q I

2T x ) dx ! ( Q I 2T ) ln( D 2 D1 )

wbt / m

For a relative permeability of

@ ] 12 ! 2 v 10 I ln( D 2 D1 )
7

wbt / m

The inductance due only to the flux included between P1 and P2 is: L12 ! 2 v 107 ln( D 2 D1 ) H /m Using the logarithm to base ( 10 ) :

L 12 ! 0.7411 log(D 2 D1 )

mH / mile

Inductance of a single-phase two wire line .

In the following Fig. , a single phase with two conductors of radius r1 and r2 have been shown. One conductor is the return circuit for the other

r1

r2

First , consider only the flux linkages of the circuit caused by the current in conductor 1. The current in conductor 2 is equal in value and opposite in direction to the current in conductor 1

The inductance of the circuit due to current in conductor 1 is determined by the following equation:

L 12 ! 2 v 10

7

ln( D 2 D1 )

H /m

With the distance D between conductor 1 and 2 substituted for D2 and the radius r1 of conductor 1 substituted for D1. For external flux only:

L1,ext . ! 2 v 107 ln( D r1 )

For internal flux only 7 L 1,int . ! 0.5 v 10

H /m

H /m

The total inductance of the current due to the current in conductor ( 1 ) equations :
L 1 ! [(1 2)  2 ln( D r1 )] v 107 = 2 v 107 [( 1 4 ) + ln( D r1 )] = 2 v 107 [ln e 1 4 + ln( D r1 )] = 2 v 107 ln( D r1 e 1 4 ) = 2 v 107 ln( D r1d ) =0.7411 log10 ( D r 1d ) H /m

Where,

d 1 !

r1 e

1 4

The inductance due to current in conductor ( 2 ) is :

L 2 ! 2 v 107 ln( D r 2d ) =0.7411 log10 ( D r 2d ) mH / mile

The inductance for the complete circuit :

L ! L1  L 2 ! 4 v 107 ln( D
r1dd r2 )

H /m

If

r1d r 2d r d ! !
mH / mile

) @ L ! 4 v 107 ln( D r d =1.4822 log10 ( D r d )

Inductance between two points external one conductor is onehalf the total inductance of a single-phase line and is called the inductance per conductor .

Flux linkages of one conductor in a group

Conductors ( 1 , 2 , 3 ,., n ) carry the phasor currents:

with distance

Let us determine , (] 1 p )1 the flux linkages of conductor, due to I 1 including internal flux linkages and external all the flux beyond point ( p ):

(] 1 p )1 ! [(I 1 2)  2 I 1 ln( D1 p r1 )] v 10 = 2 v 10 I 1 ln( D1 p r1d )

7

7

wbt / m

The flux linkage (] 1 p )2 with conductor ( 1 ) due to I 2 is equal to the flux produced by I 2 between the point (p) and conductor ( 1 )

(] 1 p )2 ! 2 v 10 I 2 ln( D 2 p D12 )
7

The flux linkage ] 1p with conductor (1 ) due to all the conductors in the group is
] 1 p ! 2 v 10 [I 1 ln( D1 p r1d I 2 ln( D 2 p D12 ) )
7

 I 3 ln( D 3 p D13 )  ....  I n ln( D np D1n )]

] 1 p ! 2 v 107 [I 1 ln(1 r1d I 2 ln(1 D12 )  I 3 ln(1 D13 )  ....  I n ln(1 D1n ) )
+I 1 ln D1 p  I 2 ln D 2 p  I 3 ln D 3 p  ....  I n ln D np ]

However , I 1  I 2  I 3  ....  I n =0

I n !  (I 1  I 2  I 3  ....  I n 1 )
( D1 p $ D 2 p $ ..... $ D np )
p : is infinity for away

] 1 ! 2 v 107 [I 1 ln(1 r1d I 2 ln(1 D12 )  I 3 ln(1 D13 )  ....  I n ln(1 D1n ) )
+ ln D1 p (I 1  I 2  I 3  ....  I n )] (5)

However , this equation includes all flux linkage of conductor ( 1 )

Inductance of compositeconductor lines.

The figure shows a single-phase line composed of two conductors , each conductor arrangement of an indefinite number of conductors and share the current equally .

Conductor ( x ) is composed of ( n ) identical each of which carries the current I/n . Conductor ( Y ) , which is the return circuit for the current in conductor( x ) , is composed to identical each of which carries the current -I/m. Applying equation ( 5 ) to filaments of conductor ( x ) , the flux linkage at conductor ( a ) is :
] a ! 2 v 107 ( I n )[ ln(1 rad ln(1 Dab )  ln(1 Dac )  ....  ln(1 Dan )] )
- 2 v 107 ( I m ) [ ln(1 Daa d ln(1 Dab d ln(1 Dac d ....  ln Dam ] ) ) )

Or
] a ! 2 v 107 I ln( m Daa d ab d ac d Dam D D .....
n

ra d ab D ac ..... D an ) D

wbt / m

The inductance of filaments ( a ) is:

La ! ] a (I n ) ! 2n v 107 ln( m Daa d ab d ac d Dam D D .....
n

ra d ab Dac ..... Dan ) D

H /m

Similarly , the inductance of filaments ( b ) is :

Lb ! ] b (I n ) ! 2n v 107 ln( m Dbad bb d bc d Dbm D D .....
n

Dba rb d bc ..... Dbn ) D

H /m

The average inductance of the filaments of conductor ( x ) is :

mn

L x ! 2n v 10 ln[
7

( Daa d ab d ac d Dam )( Dba d bb d Dbm )( Dna d Dnm ) D D ... D ... ... ( Daa Dab Dac ...Daa )( Dba Dbb Dbc ...Dbn )( D na ...D n n )

H /m

Where

@ L x = 2 v 107 ln( G.M.D G.M.R ) = 2 v 10

7

Geometric mean distance ln( ) Geometric mean radius

However , the inductance of conductor ( Y ) can be calculated similar to conductor ( x ) . The total inductance of conductor ( x ) and ( y ) is :

L ! Lx  Ly

Example (1) One circuit of a single phase transmission line is composed of three solid wires ( 0.1 in ) . The return circuit is composite of two ( 0.2 in radius ) wires . The arrangement of conductors is shown in fig. . Find the inductance due to the current in each side of the line and the inductance of the complete line . Solution The G.M.D between side ( x ) and ( y ) is :

D m ! 6 Dad Dae Dbd Dbe Dcd Dce

The G.M.R for side ( x ) is :

Ds ! 9 Daa Dab Dac Dba Dbb Dbc Dca Dcb Dcc

and for side ( Y ) :

Ds ! 4 Ddd Dde Dee Ded

The inductance ,
L x ! 2 v 10
7

L y ! 2 v 107

G .M .D ln( ) G .M .R of side x G .M .D ln( ) G .M .R of side y

Example (2) A conductor is composed of seven identical strands each having a radius ( r ) . Find the ( G.M.R ) for the conductor. Solution G.M.R of the seven strand conductor is :

Ds !

49

2 d( D12 D13 D14 D17 )6 (2r )6 (r )

The inductive reactance of one conductor of a singlephase two conductor line is : x L ! 2T fL ! 2T f v 0.7411 v 103 log( D m D s )

=4.657 v 103 f log( Dm Ds )

;/mile

Inductance of 3-phase lines with equilateral spacing.

The figure shows the conductors of a 3-phase line spaced at the corners of an equilateral triangle. where , a

r a ! r b ! rc ! r
c

b D

Assume that , there is no neutral wire. Assume balanced 3-phase phasor current .

@ Ia  Ib  Ic ! 0

The flux linkages of conductor ( a ) is :

] a ! 2 v 107 ln[I a ln(1 r d+ I b ln(1 D ) + I c ln(1 D )] ) wbt / m
(6)

Since,

I a !  (I b  I c )

(7)

From equation ( 7 ) in ( 6 ) ,
@ ] a ! 2 v 107 ln[I a ln(1 r d- I a ln(1 D )] )
=2 v 107 I a ln( D r d )

wbt / m

And Or

L a ! 2 v 107 ln( D r d )
L a ! 0.4711 log( D r d )

H /m
mH / mile

This equation is the same in form as equation for a singlephase line ( between two conductors ) . However ,

L a ! L b ! Lc

for balance system

Inductance of 3-phase lines with unsymmetrical spacing

In this case , the flux linkages and inductance of each phase are not the same . A different inductance in each phase results in an unbalance circuit . This case can be overcome by exchanging the positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each conductor occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance . Such an exchange of conductor positions is called "transposition transposition".

A complete transposition cycle is shown as : The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 1 ) , when ( b ) is in position ( 2 ) and ( c ) in position ( 3 ) , is :
] a1 ! 2 v 107 ln[I a ln(1 r d+ I b ln(1 D12 ) + I c ln(1 D 31 )] )
1 a D13 D12

wbt / m

c D23

The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 2 ) , when ( b ) is in position ( 3 ) and ( c ) in position ( 1 ) , is :

] a2 ! 2 v 107 ln[I a ln(1 r d+ I b ln(1 D 23 ) + I c ln(1 D12 )] )
1 c D13 D12

wbt / m

b D23

The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 3 ) , when ( b ) is in position ( 1 ) and ( c ) in position ( 2 ) , is :

] a3 ! 2 v 107 ln[I a ln(1 r d+ I b ln(1 D13 ) + I c ln(1 D 23 )] )
1 b D13 D12

wbt / m

a D23

The average value of the flux linkages of ( a ) is :

] a ! (] a1  ] a2  ] a3 ) 3
2 v 107 ln[3 I a ln(1 r d+ I b ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 ) + I b ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 )] ) @ ]a ! 3

Assume that a balance current :

I a ! (I b  I c )

2 v 107 ln[3 I a ln(1 r d- I a ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 )] ) @ ]a ! 3 2 v 107 = ln[3 I a ln(1 r d- 3 I a ln(1 3 D12 D 23 D13 )] ) 3 = 2 v 107 I a ln( 3 D12 D 23 D13 r d ) = 2 v 107 I a ln( Deq . r d )

And the average inductance per phase is :

L a ! 2 v 107 ln( Deq . r d ) =0.4711 log( Deq . r d ) mH / mile

However ,

L a ! L b ! Lc

are the same of equation for equal D12 ! D 23 ! D13 ! D spacing conductor

Example (3) A single circuit 3-phase line operated at ( 60 CPS ) is arranged as shown below . Each conductor has radius ( 0.2 in ) . Find the inductance and inductive reactance per phase per mile ,at frequency equals ( 50 c/s ) . Solution p L a ! 0.7411 log10 ( Deq . D sc )

Deq . ! D D D
3 p ab p ac

p cb

D ! A .B .C
p sc
3

p d d Dab ! 4 D ab D ab Dba Dba

p d d Dbc ! 4 Dbc Dbc Dcb Dcb
p d d Dca ! 4 Dca Dca Dac Dac

A ! 2 r d aa .D d
B ! 2 r d bb .D d
C ! 2 r d cc .D d

Example (4) Each conductor of a section of the ( 460 KV ) line shown in below is ( 1.5 in ) diameter . Conductor spacing is shown in the figure . Find the inductive reactance in ohm/mile at 60 CPS . Solution

Example (5) A 3-phase double circuit line has diameter ( 0.3 in ) . The line is arranged as shown below and is completely transposed. Find 60 cycle inductive reactance per phase per mile . Solution

Bundled conductors
The trend toward ever higher voltages for T.L has stimulated interest in the use of two or more conductors per phase. Such a line said to be composed of " bundled " conductors.

 Usually the spacing of conductors of a phase is about ( 10 ) times the diameter of one conductor , that is about ( 8 to 20 in ). The advantages of bundling are reduced reactance because of increased self SGM and reduce voltage drop and voltage gradient which result in reduced radio interference

Capacitance of Transmission Lines

Capacitance of a transmission line is the result of the potential difference between the conductors . The capacitance between conductors is the charge per unit of potential difference . Capacitance between parallel conductors is a constant depending on the size and spacing of the conductors

Electric field of a long straight conductor

Electric flux density ( D ) is the electric flux per square meter and is measured in coulombs per square meter . The fig. ( 1 ) shows an isolated conductor carrying an uniformly distributed charge. The flux density at ( x ) meters from the conductor can be computed by :

D!q 2 x

c m

The electric field intensity is equal to the electric flux density divided by the permittivity of the medium.

I ! q 2 xk
Where

v m
12

k ! k r ko

ko ! 8.854 v 10

F m

@I ! D k

Induced voltage is:

V ! I dx
@ V ! q 2 xk dx
r x

= ( q 2 k ) ln( x r )

The potential difference between two points due to a charge

Consider a long straight wire carrying a positive charge of [ q (c/m) ]. The positive charge on the wire will exert a repelling force on a positive charge placed in the field. The potential difference is independent of the path followed. Thus the instantaneous voltage drop between P1 and P2 is:
D2

V 12 !

dx ! q 2 xk dx ! (q 2 k ) ln( D 2 D1 )
D1

D2

(1)

D1

Capacitance of a two-wire line

Capacitance per unit length of the line is:

C !q V

F m

(2)

From eq.(2) in eq.(1) we get

C 12 ! q V 12 ! 2 k ln( D 2 D1 ) F m

 The voltage between the two conductors of the two wire shown in the fig.(3) can be found by computing the voltage drop due to the charge (qa) on conductor ( a ) and assume that conductor ( b ) is uncharged and then by computing the voltage drop due to the charge (qb) on conductor ( b ) . By the principle of superpose the voltage drop are computed. We obtained:

V ab ! (q a 2 k ) ln( D r a )  (q b 2 k ) ln(rb D )
a r1

r2

Since qa = -qb for a two-wire line .

V ab ! (q a 2 k ) [ ln( D r a )  ln(rb D )] ! (q a 2 k ) ln( D r a rb )
2

The capacitance between conductors is : C ab ! q a V ab ! 2 k ln( D r a rb )

2

F m

If

r a ! rb ! r

C ab ! 2 k 2 ln( D r ) = k ln( D r )

F m

 Sometimes it is desirable to know the capacitance between one of the conductors and a neutral point between them . Thus the capacitance to neutral for the two-wire line is twice the line-to-line capacitance ( capacitance between conductors ) . The voltage across the line divided equally between them . Therefore,
C an ! C bn ! 2C ab ! 2 k ln( D r ) F m

Capacitance of a 3-phase line with equalateral spacing

A three identical conductors of radius ( r ) shown in the fig .(5) . Thus the voltage Vab of the 3-phase line is:
V ab ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( D r )  q b ln(r D )  q c ln( D D )]
1 a D13 D12

c D23

 Similarly,
V ac ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( D r )  q b ln( D D )  q c ln(r D )]
@ V ab V ac ! (1 2 k ) [ 2 q a ln( D r )  (q b  q c ) ln(r D )]

V
V

We have assumed that ground is for enough a way to have negligible effect. For,

q a  qb  qc ! 0

@ qb  qc !  qa
@ V ab V ac ! (1 2 k ) [ 2 q a ln( D r )  q a ln(r D )] = (q a 2 k ) ln( D 3 r 3 ) = (3q a 2 k ) ln( D r ) (3)

 Fig.(6) is the phasor diagram of voltages where the voltage from line ( a ) to the neutral of the 3phase circuit.

V ab ! ( 3 2) V ab  J (1 2) V ab

V ab ! 3 V an
@ V ab ! ( 3 2) 3 V an  J ( 3 2) V an ! 3 V an [( 3 2)  J (1 2)]

 Similarly,

V ac ! 3 V an [( 3 2)  J (1 2)]

@ V ab V ac ! 3 V an
From ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) we get:

(4)

3 V an = (3q a 2 k ) ln( D r )
@ V an = (q a 2 k ) ln( D r )
 C an ! q a V an

@ C an ! 2 k ln( D r )

F m

Capacitance of a 3-phase line with unsymmetrical spacing

In this condition , the problem of calculating capacitance becomes more difficult . In the usual untransposed line the capacitances of each phases to neutral are unequal . For the line shown in the following Fig.(7) equations are found for for the three different parts of the transposition cycle .

With phase ( a ) in position (1) , (b) in position (2) and ( c ) in position ( 3 ) .

V ab ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( D12 r )  q b ln(r D12 )  q c ln( D 23 D 31 )] V

When phase ( a ) in position ( 2 ) , ( b ) in position ( 3 ) and ( c ) in position ( 1 ) ,

V ab ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( D 23 r )  q b ln(r D 23 )  q c ln( D 31 D 12 )] V

And , with phase ( a ) in position ( 3 ) , ( b ) in position ( 1 ) and ( c ) in position ( 2 ) ,

V ab ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( D 31 r )  q b ln(r D 31 )  q c ln( D12 D 23 )] V

The average voltage between conductors (a) and (b).

V ab ! (1 2 v 3 k ) [q a ln( D12 D 23 D 31 r 3 )  q b ln(r 3 D12 D 23 D 31 )  q c ln( D12 D 23 D 31 D12 D 23 D 31 )] ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( Deq r )  q b ln(r Deq )] V

Where,

Deq ! 3 D12 D 23 D 31

Similarly , the average drop from conductor ( a ) to conductor ( c ) is :

V ac ! (1 2 k ) [q a ln( Deq r )  q c ln(r Deq )] V

 V ab V ac ! 3 V an
@ 3 V an ! (1 2 k ) [2q a ln( Deq r )  q b ln(r Deq )  q c ln(r Deq )]

Since, qa+qb+qc=0 in a balanced 3-phase circuit .

3 V an ! (1 2 k ) [2q a ln( Deq r )  q a ln(r Deq )] 3 V an ! (1 2 k ) [2q a ln( Deq r )  q a ln( Deq r )] 3 V an ! (3 2 k ) q a ln( Deq r )

And
C n ! q a V an ! 2 k ln( Deq r ) F m (I )

Effect of earth on the capacitance of 3-phase transmission lines

Let us imagine conductor of the same size and shape as the overhead conductor lying directly below the original conductor above the plane of the ground . If the earth is removed and a charge equal and opposite to that on the overhead conductor is assumed on the imagine conductor . The electric flux between the overhead conductor and this equipotential surface is the same as that which existed between the conductor and the earth .

 To apply the method of images to the calculation of capacitance for a 3- phase , refer to fig.( 8 ) , we assume that the line is transposed and that conductor ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) carry the changes (qa) , (qb) and (qc) and occupy positions ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) , in the first part of the transposition cycle . The conductors with the image charges charge (-qa) , (-qb) and (-qc). Equations for 3-parts of the transposition cycle can be written for the voltage drop from conductor (a) to conductor ( b ) as determined by the three charged conductors and their images . With conductor ( a ) in position ( 1 ) , ( b ) position ( 2 ) and ( c ) in position ( 3 ) .

V ac ! (1 2 k ) [q a (ln(D12 r )  ln(H 12 H 1 ))  q b (ln(r D12 )  ln(H 2 H 12 ))  q c (ln( D 23 D 31 )  ln( H 23 H 31 ))] V

Similar equations for Vab are written for the other parts of the transposition cycle and calculate the average value of Vab. The equation for the average value Vac is found in a similar manner , and (3Van) is obtain by adding the average values of Vab and Vac . Knowing that the sum of charges is zero. We then find:
C n ! 2 k [ln( Deq r )  ln( 3 H 12 H 23 H 31
3

H 1H 2 H 3 )]

F m

( II )

Comparison of equations ( I ) and ( II ) show the effect of the earthed is to increase the capacitance of a line ( subtract from it the term:
log( 3 H 12 H 23 H 31
3

H 1H 2 H 3 )

Parallel circuit 3-phase lines

Similar to the calculation of inductance : p C n ! 2 k ln( Deq D sc )

Deq ! D D D
3 p ab p bc

p ca

D ! A .B .C
p sc 3

p ab p bc

d d ! 4 Dab Dab Dba Dba

A ! 2 r .D a  a d

d d D ! 4 Dbc Dbc Dcb Dcb d d D ! 4 Dca Dca Dac Dac

p ca

B ! 2 r .Db b d

C ! 2 r .Dc c d

Transmission Circuit Calculations

Short Transmission line

In the case of a short transmission line the capacitance and conductance to earth may be neglected. Leaving only the series resistance and inductance to be taken into consideration. The current entering the line at the sending-end termination is equal to the current leaving at the receiving-end, and this same current flows through all the line sections. The R and L parameters may therefore be regarded as ' lumped ' .

 The equivalent circuit diagram and the vector diagram for a short line are shown in fig.( 6.1 ) in which:

Fig.( 6.1 a ): Equivalent circuit for a short transmission line

Fig.( 6.1 b ): Vector diagram for a short transmission line .

 The currents IS and IR will be equal in magnitude but not in phase. Since there is a phase-shift of voltage along the line. R is obtained from a knowledge of the line length ,the size of conductor and the specifics resistance of the conductor material , while XL is calculated from the conductor spacing and radius using the formula derived in Chapter 5 .

 Referring to the equivalent circuit :

IS ! IR

(6.1a )
(6.1b )

V S ! V R  ( R  jX L )I R !V R  Z I R

Hence, if the receiving-end conditions are known the necessary sending-end voltage may be calculated .

 It will be noted that ( 6.1a ) and ( 6.1b ) are phasor equations , a more approximate method involving scalar quantities is as follows: Referring to the vector diagram,

V SX !V R  I R R cos JR  I R X L sin JR
V SY ! I R X L cos JR  I R R sin JR
@ V S =[ (V R  I R R cos JR  I R X L sin JR ) +(I R X L cos JR  I R R sin JR ) ]
2 2

12

 However (IR XL) and (IR R) are very much less than VR and the small voltage is in quadrate with the much larger VSX ,

@ V S $ V SX $ V R  I R R cos JR  I R X L sin JR
The voltage regulation of the line is given by the rise in voltage when full loads is removed , or :
V S V R ( R cos JR  X L sin JR ) %age voltage regulation ! $ IR VR VR

Example A three-phase line delivers 3 MW at 11 KV for a distance of 15 Km . Line loss is 10 % of power delivered , load power factor is 0.8 lagging . frequency is 50 Hz , 1.7 m equilateral spacing of conductors . Calculate the sending-end voltage and regulation . Solution
Receiving-end phase voltage = 11,000 3 ! 6.360 ! V R

Line current = phase current ( assuming a star connection ) 3,000 v 103 = ! 197 A 3 3 v 11 v 10 v 0.8

Total line loss =3 I R (in three conductors) 10 3 = v 3, 000 v 10 100

300 v 103 @ R ! 3 v 197 2 ! 2.58 ohms

Assuming that the conductors are manufactured from copper having a resistance of 0.0137 ohms per meter for a cross-sectional area of 1 mm2 , the conductor cross-section is 80 mm2 corresponding to a radius of 5 mm .

1 d Inductance =L ! (1  4 logc ) v 107 2 r

H / metre

@ X L ! [ L v length 1 1.7 v 103 = 314 v (1  4 logc ) v 10 7 v 15 v 10 3 2 5 =5.75 ohms

@ V S $ V R  I R R cos JR  I R X L sin JR = 6,350 + ( 197 v 2.58 v 0.8) + ( 197 v 5.75 v 0.6) = 6,350 + 1057 = 7,407 V per phase = 12,780 V line

( R cos JR  X L sin JR ) V S V R Regulation =I R = VR VR 1,057 ! 16.7 % = 6,350

Medium Transmission line

It has been mentioned in section 6.2 that the capacitance of medium length lines is significant. When the effect of capacitance is not negligible , it may be assumed to be concentrated at one or more definite points along the line. A number of localized capacitance methods have been used to make approximate line performance calculations.

 The following methods are more commonly used :

These methods of calculation give reasonably accurate results for the solution of most transmission-line problems .

Nominal T method .
In a nominal T method the total line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point of the line . The T representation of a line is shown in fig.( 6.12 ).
Series impedance of the line Z ! R  jX Shunt admittance Y ! j [C

 With the usual meanings of the quantities given in fig.( 2 ) , Z Voltage at the mid-point of the line . Vab ! Vr  Ir Current in the capacitor , Sending-end current ,

Iab ! Vab Y
Is ! Ir  Iab =Ir  Vab Y Z =Ir  (Vr  Ir ) Y 2

Z Y Is =Ir (1  )  Y Vr 2

(6.13.1)

 Sending-end voltage ,
Z Vs ! Vab  Is 2 Z Z Y Z =Vr  Ir  [Ir (1   Y Vr )] 2 2 2

Z Y Z Y Vs ! Vr (1  )  Ir ( Z  ) 2 4

(6.13.2)

Equations ( 6.13.1 ) and ( 6.13.2 ) give the sending-end current and sending-end voltage respectively. Other quantities , such as phase shift, power input, efficiency, regulation, etc, can be determined in the usual manner .

Phasor diagram The phasor diagram of the nominal T circuit of fig.(6.12) is shown in fig.(6.13). It is drawn for a lagging power factor cos JR

Fig.(6.13):Phasor diagram of a nominal T network

 In the phasor diagram :

Nominal

method .

This method assumed that one-half of the total line capacitance is concentrated at each end of the line and the total resistance and inductive reactance are concentrated at the center . Fig.( 6.14 ) shows the nominal representation of the line.

 From fig.( 6.14),

Y Iab ! Vr 2

Y I=Ir  Iab ! Ir  Vr 2
Voltage at the sending-end ,
Vs ! Vr  I Z Y ! Vr  ( Ir  Vr ) Z 2 Z Y ! (1  )Vr  Z Ir 2

(6.14.1)

Icd

Y ! Vs 2

Z Y Y ! [(1  )Vr  Z Ir ] 2 2 Sending-end current,

Is ! I  Icd
Z Y Y Y Is ! Ir  Vr  [(1  )Vr  Z Ir ] 2 2 2 Z Y2 Z Y ! ( Y+ ) Vr  ( 1  ) Ir 4 2

(6.14.2)

Equations ( 6.14.1 ) and ( 6.14.2 ) give the sending-end voltage and current respectively . The other calculations can be made in the usual manner.

Phasor diagram The phasor diagram of a nominal circuit is shown in fig.( 6.15 ). It is also drawn a lagging power factor of the load.

 In the phasor diagram the quantities shown are as follows :

Example A three-phase, 50 Hz, transmission line, 40 km long delivers 36 Mw at 0.8 power factor lagging at 60 kv (phase). The line constants per conductor are , Shunt leakage may be neglected. Find the sending-end voltage , current , phase angle, and the efficiency . Use (a) nominal T method, (b) nominal method. Solution
Phase voltage at the receiving-end

V r ! 60 kv =60 v 10

v
w

1 Power per phase = v 36 Mw = 12 v 106 3

 Therefore, the receiving-end current ,

12 v 10 Ir ! ! 250 3 60 v 10 v 0.8
6

Taking Vr as the reference phasor,

Vr ! V r  jQ cos Jr ! 0.8 , sin Jr ! 0.6 Ir ! I r cos Jr  j I r sin Jr =250 v 0.8  j 250 v 0.6=200  j 150
Reference per phase,

R ! 2.5 ;

 Inductive reactance per phase ,

X ! 2 T fL ! 2 v 3.14 v 50 v 0.1 ! 31.4 ;

Series impedance per phase,
Z =R  jX ! 2.5  j 31.4 ! 31.4 tan 1 12.56 ! 31.485.4r ;

Shunt admittance per phase

Y ! 2 T fC ! 2 v 3.14 v 50 v 0.25 v 106 ! 78.5 v 106 Y= 0 +j 78.5 v 10 siemens
6

! 78.6 v 10 90r
6

Calculation by nominal T method

The nominal T circuit for the line is shown in Fig.(6.1). Z Vab ! Vr  Ir 2 R X !V r  j 0  (I r cos Jr  j I r sin Jr )(  j ) 2 2 ! 60 v 103  (200  j 150)(1.25  j 15.7)
! 60 v 103  2.605  j 2959 ! (62.605  j 2.959) v 103 v

The current in the capacitor ,

Iab ! Y Vab ! j 78.6 v 106 (62.605  j 2.959) v 103 =-0.2315+j 4.903

 The current at the sending-end , Is ! Ir  Iab

! (200  j 150)  (-0.2315+j 4.903) =199.8  j 145 ! [(199.8)  (145) ] tan ( 145 199.8)
2 2 12 1

! 247  tan 1 0.7257 ! 247  35r 57d

Voltage drop in the left-hand half of the line ,
Z ! Is ! (199.8  j 145)(1.25  j 15.7) 2 ! 2527  j 2959

 Voltage at the sending-end ,

Z Vs ! Vab  Is 2 ! 62.605  j 2959  2527  j 2959 ! 65132  j 5918 ! [(65132)2  (5918)2 ]1 2 tan 1 (5918 65132) ! 65450 tan 1 0.09077 ! 65450 5r 11d v/phase

Fig.(6.16):Phasor diagram

 Sending-end line voltage ,

=65450 3 ! 113400 =113.4 kv

Phase difference between

Vs and Is ,

Js ! 5r 11d ( 35r 57d  ) ! 41r 8d

Sending-end power factor ,

cosJs ! cos 41r 8d =0.7532

 Power loss in the line ,

R 2 R ! 3I  3I s 2 2 2 2 ! 3 v (250) v 1.25  3 v (247) v 1.25

2 r

! 463.2 v 10

Transmission efficiency ,

Power output LT ! Power output  Power loss 36 v 10 ! 6 3 36 v 10  463.2 v 10 ! 0.9872 or 98.72 per cent
6

 Alternatively , transmission efficiency may be calculated as follows :

3 r I r cosJr V LT ! 3 s I s cosJs V 36 v 10 = 3 v 65450 v 247 v 0.7532 =0.986 or 98.6 per cent

6

Calculation by nominal

method

The nominal circuit for the line is shown in Fig.( 6.14) Y Iab ! Vr 2 ! j 39.3 v 106 v 60 v 103 =j 2.35

I ! Ir  Iab ! (200  j 150)  j 2.35 =200  j 147.65 ! [(200)  (147.65) ] tan ( 147.65 200) ! 245.6  36r 26d
2 2 12 1

 Voltage drop per phase ,

! I Z ! (200  j 147.65)(2.5  j 31.4) ! 5136  j 5910

Voltage at the sending-end per phase ,

Vs ! Vab  I Z ! 60 v 103  5136  j 5910 ! 65136  j 5910 ! [(65136)  (5910) ] tan (5910 65136) ! 65390 5r 11d v/phase
2 2 12 1

 Sending-end line voltage ,

=65390 3=113.2

kv

Y Icd ! Vs 2 6 ! j 39.3 v 10 (65136  j 5190) =  0.232+j 2.557

Sending-end current ,
Is ! Ir  Icd ! (200  j 150)  0.232+j 2.557 =199.8  j 145 ! [(199.8)  (145) ] tan ( 145 199.8) ! 247  35r 57d A
2 2 12 1

Js ! 5r 11d ( 35r 57d  ) ! 41r 8d

Sending-end power factor ,

cosJs ! cos 41r 8d =0.7532

Power loss in the line ,

=3 I R =3 v (248.6) v 2.5
2

=463.6 Kw
Transmission efficiency ,
36 v 10 LT ! 6 3 36 v 10  463.6 v 10 ! 0.9873 or 98.73 per cent
6

Example
A three-phase , 50 Hz , 150 km line operates at 110 Kv between the lines at the sending-end. The total inductance and capacitance per phase are (0.2 H) and (1.5 F) . Neglecting losses calculate the value of receiving-end load having a power factor of unity for which the voltage at the receiving-end will be the same as that at the sending-end . Assume one-half of the total capacitance of the line to be concentrated at each end .

Solution
The circuit for the given line is shown in fig.(6.17) . It is a nominal representation . 110 v 1000 V r !V s ! ! 63510 v 3

 Inductive reactance per phase ,

X L ! 2 T fL ! 2 v 3.14 v 50 v 0.2 ! 62.8

Series impedance per phase ,

Z =jX L ! j 62.8
Shunt admittance per phase ,

Y ! 2 T fC ! 2 v 3.14 v 50 v 1.5 v 10 ! 4.71 v 104 Y=j 4.71 v 10

4

6

siemins

Vr !V r  j 0

Fig.(6.17): Illustrating example (6.9).

 Current in the load-end capacitor ,

Y 4.71 Iab ! Vr ! j v 104 v 63510 ! j 14.96 2 2 A

Let the load current be Ir . Since the load power factor is unity ,

Ir ! I s 0r ! I s  j 0
Current through the inductive reactance ,

I =Ir  Iab ! Ir  j 14.96

 Sending-end voltage ,
Vs ! Vr  I Z =V r  j 0  ( Ir  j 14.96)( j 62.8) =(V r -939.5)+j 62.8 I r

V s =(V r -939.5)  (62.8 I r )

2 2

(63510)2 =(63510-939.5)2  (62.8 I r )2 (62.8 I r )2 ! 118 v 106

10862 @ Ir ! ! 173 62.8 A

General Network Constants

Introduction
A network having two input and two output terminals is known as a two-port network . It may also be called a twoterminal-pair network or quadriple network . In fig.(1 . a,b) represent the input pair terminals and ( c,d ) the output pair terminals . The two pairs of terminals are usually shown to be enclosed in a box .

Fig.( 1 ) :Two-port network .

 A circuit consisting of any arrangement of components is connected to these terminals .

V s ! AV r  BI r I s ! CV r  DI r

its

(1.1)

Where A , B , C , D are called the general network constants of the system . These constants are known by other names like transmission parameters , chain parameters and auxiliary network constants .

 Equation (1) can be put in the matrix form as :

V s A ! I s C B V r I D r (1.2)

A C The matrix

B is called the transfer matrix or D

transmission matrix of the network

Cascaded network
The overall A , B , C , D constants for several 2-port networks connected in cascade ( or chain arrangement ) can be found out easily . Fig.( 2 ) shows two cascaded networks , and one that is the equivalent of both . The constants of the two component networks are A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 and A2 , B2 , C2 , D2 . Let the constants for the equivalent network be A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 .

Fig.( 2 ) : Two cascaded networks and their equivalents.

 Let Va and Ia be the voltage and current respectively at the junction (a) of the two networks.
V a ! A2 V r  B 2 I r I a ! C 2 V r  D2 I r

(2.1)

For the network ( 1 ) ,

V s ! A1 V a  B 1 I a I s ! C 1 V a  D1 I a (2.2)

 Substituting the values of Va and Ia from the first set of equations in the second set , we have :
V s ! A1 ( A2 V r  B 2 I r )  B 1 (C 2 V r  D 2 I r ) ! ( A1 A2  B 1C 2 ) V r  ( A1B 2  B 1D 2 ) I r (2.3)

I s ! C 1 ( A2 V r  B 2 I r )  D1 (C 2 V r  D 2 I r ) ! (C 1 A2  D1C 2 ) V r  (C 1B 2  D1 D 2 ) I r (2.4)

 The sending-end voltage and current for the equivalent network with constants A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 are given by :
V s ! A0 V a  B 0 I a I s ! C 0 V a  D0 I a (2.5)

Equating the constants of Vr and Ir , the overall constants for the two networks in cascade are :
A0 ! A1 A2  B 1C 2 B 0 ! A1B 2  B 1 D 2 C 0 ! C 1 A2  D1C 2 D 0 ! C 1B 2  D 1 D 2 (2.6)

 Matrix method . For the first network ,

V s A1 ! I s C 1 B1 V a D1 I a (2.7)

But Va and Ia are the input voltage and current respectively of the second network , so that :

V a A2 ! I a C 2

B 2 V r D2 I r

(2.8)

 Combining these equations ,

V s A1 ! I s C 1 B 1 A2 C D1 2 B 2 V r D2 I r (2.9)

For the equivalent network ,

V s A0 ! I s C 0 B 0 V r D0 I r (2.10)

Comparing equations (2.9) and (2.10) we get ,

A0 C 0 B 0 A1 ! C D0 1 B 1 A2 D1 C 2 B2 D2 (2.11)

Relations between A,B ,C ,D constants

The relations between A, B , C , D constants of a passive , linear and bilateral network can be found with the help of reciprocity theorem . First a voltage V is applied to the input terminals keeping the output terminals short circuited fig.( 3 ,a ) . Since under short circuit Vr= 0 , equations ( 1.1 ) give :

V ! B I rs

(3.1)

I ss ! D I rs

(3.2)

 Now , the voltage V is applied to the output terminals and the input terminals are short circuited fig.( 3 ,b ) . The directions of flow of currents at the input and output terminals are reversed and the sending-end voltage Vs becomes zero. Equation ( 1.1 ) become :

0 ! AV  BI rd
AV I rd ! B
 I sd CV  DI rd !

(3.3)
(3.4)

 Since the network is passive , by the reciprocity theorem ,

I sd I rs !

(3.5)

Fig.( 3 )

 Combining equations ( 3.1 ), ( 3.3 ) , ( 3.4 ) and ( 3.5 ) we get , DAV  I rs ! CV  B V DAV  ! CV  B B Dividing both the sides of the above equation by -V/B we get , AD  BC ! 1 (3.6) Equation ( 3.6 ) is of one of the required relations between the network constants. This relation may also be put in the determinant form as :

A C

B !1 D

Series impedance circuit

A circuit having a series impedance Z is shown in fig.(4) . Such a case is found in a short transmission line where the line capacitance is negligible and the shunt admittance Y is zero . A transformer with magnetizing current neglected can also be represented by such a circuit .

Fig.( 4 ) :Series impedance circuit .

 For the network shown in fig.( 4 ) we may write : V s !V r  Z I r (4.1) Is ! Ir

V s 1 Z V r ! I s 0 1 I r (4.2)

By comparing these equations with the general equations (1.1) and (1.2) the general constants for the series impedance network can be written as :
A !1 C !0

1 Z The transfer matrix for the network is 0 1

B !Z D=1

(4.3)

Shunt admittance circuit

Fig,( 5 ) , shows a transmission network with a shunt admittance Y . Such a network may represent the magnetizing current circuit of a transformer or a shunt capacitor .

Fig.( 5 ) : Shunt admittance circuit

 For the network shown in fig.( 5 ) we may write :

V s !V r

I s !Y Vr  I r

(5.1)

V s 1 ! I s Y
Hence,

0 V r I 1 r

(5.2)

A !1 C !Y

B ! 0 D=1

(5.3)

Half T network
A half T network is shown in fig.( 6 ) .

Fig.( 6 ): Half-T network .

V s !V r  Z I r !V r  (Y V r  I r ) Z ! (1  Z Y ) V r  Z I r
V s (1  Z Y ) Z V r ! I 1 r Y I s (6.1)

Hence,
A ! 1 Z Y C !Y B !Z D=1 (6.2)

 Matrix method , The half T network can be considered as the cascade connection of two sections . One section is a series impedance Z and the other a shunt admittance Y . The overall constants are obtained from the matrix product of the transfer matrices of each section in the correct order.

V s 1 Z 1 ! I s 0 1 Y

0 V r I 1 r

(1  Z Y ) Z V r ! I 1 r Y

Overhead lines and its mechanical characteristics

Introduction
An overhead line comprises mainly of i ) conductor, ii ) supports , iii ) insulators and pole fittings . The function of overhead lines is to transmit electrical energy , and the important characteristics which the line conductors must have are : a) High electrical conductivity . b) High tensile strength . c) Low density . d) Low cost . The metals which posses the above properties are copper , aluminum and steel , which are used either alone or in combination .

Types of conductors
Copper
The most common conductor used for transmission is hard-drawn copper , because it is twice as strong as soft drawn copper and it stretches to a much lesser extent than soft drawn copper . The merits of this metal as a line conductor are : i ) It has a best conductivity in comparison to other metals . The conductivity of copper , however depends upon the percentage of impurities present in it , the more the impurities the lesser will be the conductivity . The conductivity of copper conductor also depends upon the method by which it has been drawn .

ii )

iii ) iv ) v)

It has higher current density , so for the given current rating , lesser cross-sectional area of conductor is required and hence it provides lesser cross-sectional area to wind loads . The metal is quite homogeneous . It has low specific resistance . It is durable and has a higher scrap value .

Aluminum
Next to copper aluminum is the conductor used in order of performance as far as the conductivity is concerned .Its merits and demerits are : i ) It is cheaper than copper . ii ) It is lighter in weight . iii ) It is second in conductivity ( among the metals used for transmission ) . Commercial hard-down aluminum wire at standard temperature has approximately 60.6 per cent conductivity in comparison to standard annealed copper wire . iv ) For same ohmic resistance , its diameter is about 1.27 times that of copper .

v) vi )

At higher voltages it causes less corona loss . Since the diameter of the conductor is more , so it is subject to greater wind pressure due to which greater is the swing of the conductor and greater is the sag . vii ) Since the conductors are liable to swing, so it requires larger cross arms . viii ) As the melting point of the conductor is low , so the short circuit etc. will damage it . ix ) Joining of aluminum is much more difficult than that of any other material . Because of storage of copper ores in India ,the use of aluminum in transmission and distribution lines has been adopted .

Steel
No doubt it has got the greatest tensile strength , but it is least used for transmission of electrical energy as it has got high resistance .Bare steel conductors are not used since , it deteriorates rapidly owing to rusting . Generally galvanized steel wires are used . It has the following properties : i) It is lowest in conductivity . ii ) It has high internal reactance . iii ) It is much subjected to eddy current and hysterisis loss. iv ) In a damp atmosphere it is rusted . Hence its use is limited .

Aluminum conductor reinforced ( A.C.S.R )

with

steel

An aluminum conductor having a central core of galvanized steel wires is used for high voltage transmission purposes . This is done to increase the tensile strength of aluminum conductor . the galvanized steel core is covered by one or more strands of aluminum wires . The steel conductors used are galvanized in order to prevent rusting and electrolytic corrosion ( since Zinc is near to aluminum and there is no electro-chemical action between the two metals ) .

 The cross-sections of the two metals are in the ratio (1:6) , but in case of high strength conductors their ratio is (1:4) . Thus the steel reinforced aluminum conductor has less sag and longer span than the copper conductor line since it has high tensile strength . The aluminum steel conductor has a larger diameter than any other type of conductor of same resistance . For all calculation purposes , it is assumed that the current is passing only in the aluminum section .

Line supports

i) ii ) iii ) iv ) v) vi ) vii )

The line supports are poles and the chief requirements for such supports are :
They must be mechanically strong with factor of safety of 2.5 to 3 . They must be light in weight without the loss of strength . They must have least number of parts . They must be cheap . Their maintenance cost should be minimum . They must be easily accessible for point and erection of line conductors . They must have longer life .

viii ) They must be of pleasing shape .

 The different types of poles which can be used as line supports are :

a. Wooden poles . b. Steel tubular poles c. Reinforced concrete poles . d. Steel towers .

Fig.(1):Singlephase single-circuit

Spacing between the conductors

The most suitable spacing between the conductors can be arrived at by mathematical calculations. It can only be obtained by empirical formulae which have been obtained from practical considerations.

Fig.(7):Three-phase single circuit horizontal disposition of conductor and steel towers

 Generally the following formulae are used for obtaining spacing between the conductors :
spacing ! 0.01 V kv d  1.24 [ D feet

Where, Vkv : is voltage in kilovolts . d : is diameter of conductor in inches . w : is weight of conductor in lb. per foot run . D : is sag in feet .

Sag-tension calculations for the overhead lines

The theory of sag tension calculation is based on the fact that when a wire of uniform cross-section is suspended between two points at the same level , the wire sags down and assumes the shape of a " catenary " . The line between the two points must be so teasioned that .

Fig.(9):Representation of sag in the conductor suspended between two points

Let , ( L ) be the length of the conductor POQ , suspended between the supports P and Q at the same level and having a distance L between them . Let , O be the lowest point of the catenary so formed , D be the maximum sag , and let : w : be the weight of the conductor per unit length . T : be the tension at any point A of the conductor . To : be the tension at point O of the conductor , which is taken as origin . S : be the length of the conductor OA .

W I D! 8 T0

W l TQ ! T 0  8 T0

Effect of ice covering and wind over the line

Under the severest conditions of ice covering and wind , the stress over the line is increased to the maximum . The ice covering over the conductor increase the weight of the conductor per unit length . Let , ( d cm ) be the diameter of the conductor and ( r cm ) be the radial thickness of ice.

Fig.(10): Representation of conductor covered with ice

 Cross-sectional area of the conductor

T d ! 4

Overall cross-sectional area when covered with ice

T 2 ! (d  2 r ) 4
Sectional area of the ice
T T d2 = (d  2 r )2  4 4 T = [ (d  2 r )2  d 2 ] 4 T = [ d 2  4 r 2  4 d r d 2 ] 4 =T r ( d  r )

 Density of ice

! 0.915

g / cm 3

Weight of ice per meter length

! T r ( d  r ) v 100 v 0.915 v 103 ! 0.287 r ( d  r ) Kg Kg

The minimum temperature is assumed to be 22oF The effect of wind is allowed for by assuming that the wind is blowing with a velocity of ( 80.45 km ) per hour across the line . It is equivalent to a pressure of ( 33.7 km ) per square meter of the projected surface to the line to ice .

 The projected surface per meter length of the conductor

( d 2r ) ! v1 100 sq.m

So , wind pressure Pw horizontal direction ,

per meter run of the line in a

( d 2 r ) Pw ! 33.7 v 100 ! 0.337 ( d  2 r )

Kg

Fig.(11):Representation of resultant force acting on the conductor . So , the resultant force Wi acting on the conductor from figure , is given as :

W i ! (w  w i )  P
2

2 w

Overhead line over supports different level

Consider an overhead line POQ , supports over the supports at points P and Q . The difference between supports level is h as shown in figure(12).

Fig.(12)

 Let , the different between the supports P and Q be h . The line POQ forms the parts of the catenary , " POP ". Let the horizontal distance between O and support Q be (x). So , distance of support P from O ! l  x

! and distance between PP d 2 ( l  x )

l T h x!  2 l w

Example
An overhead line has a span of 220 meters , the lines conductor weights 684 km . per 1,000 meters . Calculate the max. sag in the line , if the maximum allowable tension in the line is 1,450 kg

Solution
W l Maximum sag = 8 T 0
2

l ! 220
T 0 ! 1, 450

m
Kg

Weight per unit length

684 ! 1, 000 ! 0.684 Kg Kg

Max. sag
0.684 v 220 v 220 ! 8 v 1, 450 ! 2.85 m