Composite Materials Performance MHK221188

THERMAL EFFECTS IN BUILDINGS

Introduction
The Basics transfer; gases and vapours Thermal Effects Thermal insulation; insulation values; thermal bridging;

structural temperatures

Essential reading
 Environmental Science in Building,

(6thedition)
 Randall McMullan, Palgrave

MacMillan

Nature of Heat
 

THERMAL ENERGY Heat is form of energy ie thermal energy SI unit of heat is the Joule (J) Others sometimes used; Calorie; kilowatt hour; and BTU Other forms of energy also measured in Joules POWER Rate at which energy is converted from one form to another P= H / t where H is Heat energy and t is time SI unit of power is the Watt (W) (1 watt = 1 J/sec.)

Nature of Heat
 TEMPERATURE Simply, heat flows from objects at high temperature to those at

low temperature
By definition, when no heat transfer between the two objects they

are at the same temperature.

Think of a heated building, heat will tend to flow from the hot

building to the cooler outside air (in winter) and visa versa in summer
SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K) 0C = 273K

100C = 373K

Nature of Heat
 HEAT CAPACITY Ability to hold heat Do not confuse with Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Capacity = Quantity of heat required to raise 1kg of the

material by 1K (or 1C) (Measured in J/kg K)

Water 4190 J/kg K Concrete 3300 J/kg K Copper 390 J/kg K So water is a very good medium for storing heat Water around British Isles retains heat and creates a temperate climate

Nature of heat
 DENSITY Relates the mass of an object to its volume Density ( ) = mass (m) / volume (v) Masonry high density (small volume has large

mass) therefore high heat capacity within small volume

Electric storage heater uses cheap electricity to

heat bricks up, which then emit heat during the day.
Heat storage capacity of brick, concrete and stone

very relevant to thermal behaviour of buildings

Nature of Heat
 

CHANGE OF STATE Solid; liquid; gas Material absorbs heat to change from solid to liquid then to gas Material releases heat when change form gas to liquid then solid SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT Sensible heat heat energy absorbed or released during a change in temperature Latent heat ditto during change of state Enthalpy steam @ 373K > energy than water at 373K

Heat transfer

Heat will transfer between bodies until they reach an equilibrium

CONDUCTION; CONVECTION; RADIATION

Heat transfer
 CONDUCTION

Transfer of heat energy through a material without the molecules changing their positions Heat transferred as molecules in one part heated, then heat moves to other parts Metals best conductors (high in free electrons) Poor conductors include liquids and gasses, so porous materials with high air content, good insulators in buildings

Heat Transfer


Measurement of thermal conductivity Conduction can be measured Thermal Conductivity measure of rate at which heat is conducted. Relates to:Coefficient of thermal conductivity - Usually k or Measured in W/mK i.e. the coefficient of thermal conductivity is heat flow in Watts across 1m thickness of material for temp diff. of 1K (1 C) and a surface area of 1m Resistivity (r) reciprocal of k-value ie r = 1/k or 1/ Because reciprocal, r measured in mK/W

Heat Transfer


CONVECTION Transfer of heat energy through a material by the bodily movement of particles Will only happen in fluids (i.e. liquids and gasses). Will not happen in solids Convection occurs when the fluid e.g. air, is heated; It then expands Heated (expanded) air is less dense, so cooler fluid displaces the warmer air causing the latter to rise New air then also heated and process repeated Gives rise to a convection current

Convection currents in a room Air is poor conductor but whole room can be heated by a single heater, using Convection as the mode of heat transfer

Heat Transfer


RADIATION In outer space, convection and conduction are not possible, so how is the Earth warmed by the sun? Radiation - Defined as the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves Simple rules Dull black surfaces have the highest absorption and emission of radiant heat Shiny silver surfaces have the lowest absorption and emission of radiant heat

Heat transfer


THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT Sun emits short wavelength radiation It passes through atmosphere and glass

Inside Greenhouse, heat absorbed by plants which then re-radiate heat Re-radiated heat is of longer wavelength, which dont easily penetrate glass Re-radiated heat is therefore trapped, causing internal temp. to rise Planet Earth behaves in the same way. Increase in GH gasses eg C0 Implies greater level of re-radiated heat is retained Contribution to global warming

Thermal Effects


LEARNING Need for building insulation Types of materials used Calculate R-values and U-values Compare types used in different parts Assess the building for insulation quality Building codes related to insulation Assess bldg elements for relative insulation values Cause and effect of thermal bridging Temp profiles and prediction of condensation Why different structures respond to temperature changes at different rates ?

Thermal Effects

CONTENTS THERMAL INSULATION materials; insulators; thermal conductivity; INSULATION VALUES thermal transmittance (U-value); elemental U-values; thermal resistance (R- value); u-value adjustment THERMAL BRIDGING Bridge effects; pattern staining; combining U-values STRUCTURAL TEMPERATURES response times; temperature gradients

Thermal insulation


General Retain heat inside for as long as possible Conserves energy & reduces costs Less energy use implies less CO (and other) Implies reduced global warming Good insulation will achieve this Will also reduce heating effect in the summer Consider a tent no insulation: hot in summer & very cold in winter Large buildings sometimes more costly to cool than heat

Thermal insulation


General (contd) Condensation is a significant problem in poorly insulated properties particularly where surface temperatures are low Good thermal insulation will keep internal surface temperatures above the dewpoint and therefore reduce the condensation effect Well placed insulation reduces time for a room to heat up e.g. when unoccupied during the day

Thermal Insulation


INSULATING MATERIALS DESIGN to oppose transfer of heat between areas at different temperatures Vacuum is perfect insulator against conduction not practical, so consider gasses Atoms spaced well apart and low densities almost as good Air is the active ingredient used in many insulation materials E.g. mineral wool; aerated concrete Cannot use air alone since no strength and moving air would also carry heat through convection. (Air is trapped within min. wool)

Condensation of water vapour poor ventilation of rooms/thermal bridges

Thermal insulation
 MATERIALS (contd) To restrict radiant heat, use surfaces that do not absorb or emit

radiant heat
Which are?? Shiny surfaces that reflect electromagnetic waves E.g. Aluminium foil But Aluminium is a very good conductor! However foil is so thin, very little conductive effect

Thermal Insulation
TYPES OF THERMAL INSULATOR

Rigid preformed materials Flexible materials Loose fill materials Materials formed on-site Reflective materials

e.g. aerated concrete blocks e.g. mineral wool quilts e.g. expanded polystyrene granules e.g. foamed polyurethane e.g. aluminium foil

Thermal Insulation
 PROPERTIES Good insulator Suitable strength Moisture resistance Fire resistance Pest and fungi resistance Harmless to humans and environment Compatible with adjacent materials

Thermal Insulation
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

 

Remember: thermal conductivity (rate of conduction of heat) k or Units: W/mK Values of k can vary due to differences in density, thickness, moisture content, degeneration of the material, but for our purposes, we will assume a set density for a particular material, as shown in Table 2.1

Thermal Insulation

Thermal Insulation

Thermal Insulation
  

RESISTIVITY Remember: Reciprocal of conductivity (an alternative measurement for conduction) r = 1/k NB: not to be confused with Resistance (R) see later slides

THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE (U-VALUE) U-value is usually the performance value defined in the Building Codes (Building Regulations) Applied to walls; floors and roofs in their composite form e.g. the U-value of walls < 0.25 W/mK

Insulation values

Emissivity and Absorption

Ability of a material to give off or absorb radiant heat Relates to the surface of the material Rough black absorbs and emits most heat Shiny silver absorbs and emits least heat All materials compared with a black body
A "black body" is a theoretical perfect absorber, which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths falling on it. It reflects no light at normal temperatures and thus appears black. However, like ideal gas in kinetic theory, it is a theoretical model and we may find in reality only "Almost perfect black bodies".

EMISSIVITY fraction of energy radiated by a body compared to that radiated by a black body at the same temperature ABSORPTIVITY fraction of radiant energy absorbed by a body compared with that absorbed by a black body etc

Emissivity and Absorption



Examples: Aluminium Emissivity 0.05 Absorption 0.2 Dark bricks Emissivity 0.9 Absorption 0.6 Generally, colour has an important effect on heat absorbed by the building via the high temp. radiation from the sun. Colour has little effect on the heat emitted from buildings (low temp. radiation) Low E Glass Transmits maximum light; rejects max. Solar energy; and reflects max. room temp energy back into the room

Insulation Values


THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE U VALUE Different materials conduct heat at different rates In a cavity, also heat transfer via convection and radiation Also have to account for surfaces, because radiation and convection will be affected by surface colour and exposure to weather Combination of all these factors provides us with the overall thermal transmittance or U-value The higher the U-value the more heat flows through so a good U-value is a low one as you want to keep heat inside the building or outside depending on the climate you live in.

Insulation Values
U-Value is a measure of the overall rate of heat transfer, by all

mechanisms under standard conditions, through a particular section of construction

Unit: W/mK U values have a linear relationship with heat loss ie wall with U-value 0.3 W/mK loses heat at half the rate of a

wall with U-value of 0.6 W/mK

Also, cost of replacement heat will be half!!
The technical explanation of the U-value The U-value physically describes how much thermal energy in Watts [W] is transported through a building component with the size of 1 square meter [m] at a temperature difference of 1 Kelvin [K] (=1C).

Elemental U-values

Insulation properties will vary, depends on moisture content U-values calculated assuming standard values for mc and rates of heat transfer at surfaces and in cavities see slide on Standard thermal resistances Building Regulations and Scottish Codes use U-values as targets and limits for thermal insulation and energy use U-value standard values common basis for comparison (see table 2.3)

Elemental U-values

Elemental U-values

Note: Values indicative only manufacturers details must be consulted for accurate assessment

Thermal Resistance (R)

U-values calculated from the R-values of the various parts

that make up an element e.g. a wall

Thermal resistance (R) is a measure of the opposition to

heat transfer by a component in say a wall

Unit: mK / W Three types of thermal resistance Material resistance Surface resistance Airspace resistance

Thermal Resistances, R
Thermal Resistance, R [m2K/W]
A measure of the opposition to heat transfer offered by a particular component in a building element.

Thermal resistance of homogeneous layers

Design thermal values can be given as either design thermal conductivity or design thermal resistance. If thermal conductivity is given, we can obtain the thermal resistance of the layer from

d R! k
where d = thickness of material (m) k = thermal conductivity of material (W/mK) R = thermal resistance (m2 K/W)

Thermal Resistance
MATERIAL RESISTANCES
Resistance R depends on the thermal conductivity (k)

and its thickness (d)

R = d/k Also, R= r x d Where r is the resistivity (as opposed to Resistance) Remember, r = 1 / k i.e. the reciprocal of the conductivity value

(When calculating U-values, we are usually told the k value i.e. Thermal Conductivity)

Thermal Resistance
SURFACE RESISTANCES
 Have to be factored into the U-value calculations as well Usually given as a set of standard values (see table 2.4 below)

AIRSPACE RESISTANCES
 Ditto And ditto

Thermal Resistance

Thermal Resistance
 Total Thermal Resistance Calculate individual resistance of various components Add them together Get Total Thermal resistance - RT or
series

Analogy Total Resistance is similar to adding electrical resistance in

Thermal Resistance

Once we have RT (or

R), only a simple step away from establishing the U-Value !!!!!!

Calculation of U-values
 U-value is the reciprocal of Total Thermal Resistance ie U=1/  Where U = U-value (W / m K)

R = sum of thermal resistances of all components in the element (eg surface resistances; air space resistances; brick resistance; plaster resistance; all forming a solid brick wall)

Insulation Values U-values

U=

1 R si + R1 + R 2 + ..... + R a + R so

Where: U - thermal transmittance of overall structure ( W/m2 C) Rsi,Rso - inside and outside thermal resistances (m2 C/W) R1,R2 - thermal resistance of structural elements (m2 C/W) Ra - thermal resistance of airspace (m2 C/W)

Calculation of U-values

Calculation of U-values
 Adjustments to U-values Typically we might have a 1930s as built cavity wall We can calculate its existing U-value as described already,

perhaps 1.6 W/m K

What if we wanted to thermally upgrade the wall? What insulation would be needed to upgrade the U-value to a

target of say 0.3 W/m K

Calculation process is simply the reverse of what we have done

already