Class 14

Simplifications of Context-Free Grammars
Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI
A Substitution Rule
Equivalent grammar
S p aB A p aaA Substitute A p abBc B pb B p aA B pb

S p aB | ab A p aaA A p abBc | abbc B p aA

2
A Substitution Rule
S p aB | ab A p aaA A p abBc | abbc B p aA
Substitute
B p aA
S p aB | ab | aaA A p aaA A p abBc | abbc | abaAc
Equivalent grammar
3
In general:
A p xBz B p y1
Substitute
B p y1
A p xBz | xy1z
equivalent grammar
4
Nullable Variables
P production :
ApP
Nullable Variable:
A- P
Removing Nullable Variables

Example Grammar:
S p aMb M p aMb M pP
Nullable variable
Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI 6
Final Grammar
S p aMb S p aMb M p aMb M pP

Substitute
M pP
S p ab M p aMb M p ab
Unit-Productions
Unit Production:
Ap B
(a single variable in both sides)
Removing Unit Productions

Observation:
Ap A
Is removed immediately
Example Grammar:
S p aA Apa Ap B BpA B p bb
S p aA Apa Ap B BpA B p bb
S p aA | aB
Substitute
Ap B
Apa B p A| B B p bb
11
S p aA | aB Apa B p A| B B p bb
S p aA | aB
Remove
BpB
Apa BpA B p bb
12
S p aA | aB Apa Substitute BpA BpA B p bb
S p aA | aB | aA Apa B p bb
13
Remove repeated productions
Final grammar
S p aA | aB | aA Apa B p bb
S p aA | aB Apa B p bb
14
Useless Productions
S p aSb S pP SpA A p aA Useless Production

Some derivations never terminate...
S A aA aaA - aa - aA Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI 15
Another grammar:
SpA A p aA ApP B p bA Useless Production

Not reachable from S
16
In general: if
contains only terminals
S - xAy - w
w L(G )
then variable otherwise, variable
A is useful A is useless
17
A production A p x is useless if any of its variables is useless
Variables useless
S p aSb S pP SpA
Productions useless useless useless useless

18
A p aA useless B p C
useless
CpD
Removing Useless Productions

Example Grammar:
S p aS | A | C Apa B p aa C p aCb
19
First:
find all variables that can produce strings with only terminals
Round 1:
{ A, B}
SpA
Round 2:
{ A, B, S }
20
Keep only the variables that produce terminal symbols:

(the rest variables are useless)
{ A, B, S }
S p aS | A Apa B p aa
21
Remove useless productions
Second: Find all variables

reachable from
Use a Dependency Graph
B
not reachable
22
Keep only the variables reachable from S

(the rest variables are useless)
Final Grammar
S p aS | A Apa
Remove useless productions

Removing All
Step 1: Remove Nullable Variables Step 2: Remove Unit-Productions Step 3: Remove Useless Variables
24
Normal Forms for Context-free Grammars
25
Chomsky Normal Form

Each productions has form:
A p BC
variable
or
Apa
terminal
variable
26
Examples:
S p AS S pa A p SA Apb
Chomsky Normal Form
S p AS S p AAS A p SA A p aa
Not Chomsky Normal Form
27
Convertion to Chomsky Normal Form

Example:
S p ABa A p aab B p Ac
Not Chomsky Normal Form
28
Introduce variables for terminals:
Ta , Tb , Tc
S p ABTa S p ABa A p aab B p Ac A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

Introduce intermediate variable:
V1
S p ABTa A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

S p AV1 V1 p BTa A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

30
Introduce intermediate variable:
V2
S p AV1 V1 p BTa A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

S p AV1 V1 p BTa A p TaV2 V2 p TaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

31
Final grammar in Chomsky Normal Form:
S p AV1 V1 p BTa
Initial grammar
A p TaV2 V2 p TaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b

S p ABa A p aab B p Ac
Tc p c
32
In general: From any context-free grammar (which doesnt produce P ) not in Chomsky Normal Form we can obtain: An equivalent grammar in Chomsky Normal Form
The Procedure
First remove: Nullable variables Unit productions
34
Then, for every symbol
a: Ta p a a with Ta
Add production
In productions: replace
New variable:
Ta
35
Replace any production with
A p C1C2 . Cn A p C1V1 V1 p C2V2 Vn2 p Cn1Cn
New intermediate variables:
V1, V2 , - ,Vn2
36
Theorem:
For any context-free grammar (which doesnt produce P ) there is an equivalent grammar in Chomsky Normal Form
37
Observations
Chomsky normal forms are good for parsing and proving theorems
It is very easy to find the Chomsky normal form for any context-free grammar
Greinbach Normal Form
All productions have form:
A p a V1V2 . Vk
symbol variables
k u0
39
Examples:
S p cAB A p aA | bB | b Bpb
S p abSb S p aa
Not Greinbach Normal Form
40
Conversion to Greinbach Normal Form:
S p aTb STb S p abSb S p aa S p aTa Ta p a Tb p b

Theorem:
For any context-free grammar (which doesnt produce P ) there is an equivalent grammar in Greinbach Normal Form
42
Observations
Greinbach normal forms are very good for parsing
It is hard to find the Greinbach normal form of any context-free grammar

Compilers
44
Machine Code Program v = 5; if (v>5) x = 12 + v; while (x !=3) { x = x - 3; v = 10; } ...... Add v,v,0 cmp v,5 jmplt ELSE THEN: add x, 12,v ELSE: WHILE: cmp x,3 ...
45
Compiler
Lex
46
Lex: a lexical analyzer

A Lex program recognizes strings
For each kind of string found the lex program takes an action
47
Output Input Var = 12 + 9; if (test > 20) temp = 0; else while (a < 20) temp++; Identifier: Var Operand: = Integer: 12 Operand: + Integer: 9 Semicolumn: ; Keyword: if Parenthesis: ( Identifier: test ....
48
Lex
program
In Lex strings are described with regular expressions
Lex program
Regular expressions + - = if then /* operators */
/* keywords */
Lex program
Regular expressions (0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)+ /* integers */
(a|b|..|z|A|B|...|Z)+
/* identifiers */
50
integers
(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)+
[0-9]+
51
identifiers
(a|b|..|z|A|B|...|Z)+
[a-zA-Z]+
52
Each regular expression has an associated action (in C code)
Examples:
Regular expression \n [0-9]+ [a-zA-Z]+ Action linenum++; prinf(integer); printf(identifier);
Default action:
ECHO;
Prints the string identified to the output
54
A small lex program

%% [ \t\n] [0-9]+ [a-zA-Z]+ ; /*skip spaces*/
printf(Integer\n); printf(Identifier\n);
55
Input 1234 test 78
Output Integer Identifier Identifier Integer Integer Integer
var 566 9800
56
%{ int linenum = 1; %} %% [ \t] \n [0-9]+ [a-zA-Z]+
Another program
; /*skip spaces*/ linenum++; prinf(Integer\n); printf(Identifier\n); printf(Error in line: %d\n, linenum); Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI 57
Input 1234 test 78
Output Integer Identifier Identifier Integer Integer Integer Error in line: 3 Identifier
var 566 9800 + temp
Lex matches the longest input string Example: Regular Expressions if ifend
Input: Matches:
ifend ifend
if if
59
Internal Structure of Lex
Lex
Regular expressions NFA DFA Minimal DFA
The final states of the DFA are associated with actions

Compiler
Lexical analyzer parser
input program
output machine code

61
A parser knows the grammar of the programming language
62
Parser
PROGRAM p STMT_LIST STMT_LIST p STMT; STMT_LIST | STMT; STMT p EXPR | IF_STMT | WHILE_STMT | { STMT_LIST } EXPR p EXPR + EXPR | EXPR - EXPR | ID IF_STMT p if (EXPR) then STMT | if (EXPR) then STMT else STMT WHILE_STMTp while (EXPR) do STMT
The parser finds the derivation of a particular input derivation input 10 + 2 * 5 Parser E -> E + E |E*E | INT E => E + E => E + E * E => 10 + E*E => 10 + 2 * E => 10 + 2 * 5
64
derivation tree derivation E => E + E => E + E * E => 10 + E*E => 10 + 2 * E => 10 + 2 * 5 E 10 E 2

E + E * E 5
65
derivation tree E E 10 E 2 * E 5
machine code E mult a, 2, 5 add b, 10, a
Parsing
67
Parser input string grammar derivation
68
Example:
Parser input
S p SS S p aSb S p bSa S pP
derivation ?
aabb
69
Exhaustive Search
S p SS | aSb | bSa | P
Phase 1:
S SS S aSb S bSa S P
Find derivation of
aabb
All possible derivations of length 1

S SS S aSb S bSa S P
aabb
71
Phase 2
S p SS | aSb | bSa | P aabb
S SS SSS
Phase 1
S SS S aSb
S SS aSbS S SS bSaS S SS S S aSb aSSb S aSb aaSbb S aSb abSab S aSb ab

72
Phase 2
S p SS | aSb | bSa | P aabb
S SS SSS S SS aSbS S SS S S aSb aSSb S aSb aaSbb

Phase 3
S aSb aaSbb aabb

Final result of exhaustive search (top-down parsing) Parser
S p SS
input
aabb
S p aSb S p bSa S pP
derivation
S aSb aaSbb aabb

Time complexity of exhaustive search Suppose there are no productions of the form
ApP
Ap B
Number of phases for string
w:
2| w|
75
For grammar with
k rules
Time for phase 1:
k possible derivations
76
Time for phase 2:
possible derivations
77
Time for phase
2 | w |:
2|w|
2|w| possible derivations k
78
Total time needed for string
w:
k k . k
2|w|
phase 1
phase 2
phase 2|w|
Extremely bad!!!
There exist faster algorithms for specialized grammars S-grammar:
A p ax
string of variables
symbol
Pair
( A, a ) appears once
80
S-grammar example:
S p aS S p bSS S pc
Each string has a unique derivation
S aS abSS abcS abcc

For S-grammars: In the exhaustive search parsing there is only one choice in each phase Time for a phase:
Total time for parsing string

w:
| w|
82
For general context-free grammars:
There exists a parsing algorithm that parses a string | w | 3 in time | w |
83

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Simplifications of Context-Free Grammars

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

S p aB A p aaA Substitute A p abBc B pb B p aA B pb

S p aB | ab A p aaA A p abBc | abbc B p aA

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Removing Nullable Variables

S p aMb S p aMb M p aMb M pP

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

(a single variable in both sides)

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Removing Unit Productions

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

S p aA | aB Apa Substitute BpA BpA B p bb

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Remove repeated productions

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

S p aSb S pP SpA A p aA Useless Production

S A aA aaA - aa - aA Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI 15

SpA A p aA ApP B p bA Useless Production

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

contains only terminals

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

A production A p x is useless if any of its variables is useless

Productions useless useless useless useless

Removing Useless Productions

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Keep only the variables that produce terminal symbols:

Remove useless productions

Second: Find all variables

Use a Dependency Graph

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Keep only the variables reachable from S

Remove useless productions

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Normal Forms for Context-free Grammars

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Chomsky Normal Form

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Convertion to Chomsky Normal Form

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Introduce variables for terminals:

S p ABTa S p ABa A p aab B p Ac A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

Introduce intermediate variable:

S p ABTa A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

S p AV1 V1 p BTa A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

Introduce intermediate variable:

S p AV1 V1 p BTa A p TaTaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

S p AV1 V1 p BTa A p TaV2 V2 p TaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b Tc p c

Final grammar in Chomsky Normal Form:

A p TaV2 V2 p TaTb B p ATc Ta p a Tb p b

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Then, for every symbol

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Replace any production with

A p C1C2 . Cn A p C1V1 V1 p C2V2 Vn2 p Cn1Cn

New intermediate variables:

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Greinbach Normal Form

All productions have form:

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Buch - RPI

Conversion to Greinbach Normal Form:

A p C1C2 . Cn A p C1V1 V1 p C2V2 Vn2 p Cn1Cn

derivation tree derivation E => E + E => E + E * E => 10 + EE => 10 + 2 E => 10 + 2 * 5 E 10 E 2