Air Pollution

Introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. Air is never perfectly clean.

Air Pollutants
A substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Airborne particles and gasses that occur in concentrations that endanger the heath and well-being of organisms or disrupt the orderly functioning of the environment. It can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.

Classification of Air Pollutants

Primary - Usually directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories
which are emitted directly from identifiable sources,

Secondary Not emitted directly, rather they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. e.g. ground level ozone one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.
which are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place among primary pollutants.

(cont) Classification of Air Pollutants

(cont) Classification of Air Pollutants

Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Although some types of air pollution are recent creations, others, such as London's infamous smoke pollution, have been around for centuries. One of the most tragic air pollution episodes ever occurred in London in December 1952 when more than four- thousand people died.

Controlling Air Pollution through Regulations

Economic activity, population growth, meteorological conditions, and regulatory efforts to control emissions, all influence the trends in air pollution. The Clean Air Act of 1970 mandated the setting of standards for four of the primary pollutants
particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and Nitrogen as well as the secondary pollutant ozone.

Have Regulations Helped?

In 1997, the emissions of the five major primary pollutants in the United States were about 31 percent lower than 1970. In 1990, Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments, which further tightened controls on air quality. Regulations and standards regarding the provisions of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 are periodically established and revised.

Air Pollution Occurrences

The most obvious factor influencing air pollution is the quantity of contaminants emitted into the atmosphere. However, when air pollution episodes take place, they are not generally the result of a drastic increase in the output of pollutants; instead, they occur because of changes in certain atmospheric conditions. Two of the most important atmospheric conditions affecting the dispersion of pollutants are: (1) the strength of the wind and (2) the stability of the air.

Air Mixing
The direct effect of wind speed is to influence the concentration of pollutants. Atmospheric stability determines the extent to which vertical motions will mix the pollution with cleaner air above the surface layers. The vertical distance between Earth's surface and the height to which convectional movements extend is called the mixing depth. Generally, the greater the mixing depth, the better the air quality.

Inversions
Temperature inversions represent a situation in which the atmosphere is very stable and the mixing depth is significantly restricted. When an inversion exists and winds are light, diffusion is inhibited and high pollution concentrations are to be expected in areas where pollution sources exist. Surface temperature inversions form because the ground is a more effective radiator than the air above. Inversions aloft are associated with sinking air that characterizes centers of high air pressure (anticyclones).

Inversion

This is an example of a generalized temperature profile for a surface inversion.

Temperature-profile changes in bottom diagram after the sun has heated the surface.

An Inversion Aloft

Acid Precipitation
In most areas within several hundred kilometers of large centers of human activity, the pH value is much lower than the usual value found in unpopulated areas. This acidic rain or snow, formed when sulfur and nitrogen oxides produced as by-products of combustion and industrial activity are converted into acids during complex atmospheric reactions, is called acid precipitation.

(cont.) Acid Precipitation

The atmosphere is both the avenue by which offending compounds travel from sources to the sites where they are deposited and the medium in which the combustion products are transformed into acidic substances. Beyond possible impacts on health, the damaging effects of acid precipitation on the environment include the lowering of pH in thousands of lakes in Scandinavia and eastern North America. Besides producing water that is toxic to fish, acid precipitation has also detrimentally altered complex ecosystems by many interactions at many levels of organization.

Types Of Air Pollution

Smog Green House Effect Accidental air pollution Industrial air pollution Transport related air pollution Dwelling related air pollution

(cont.) Types Of Air Pollution Smog: - Happens when the smoke present in the atmosphere after emitting from different sources is combined with the fog present in the air, a mixture formed that is referred to as smog.
Basically different types of factories or the industries are responsible for the formation of the smog.

Formation Of Photochemical Smog

When pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides combine in the presence of sunlight, smog is formed. This is a mixture of gases and since it is formed by photochemical reactions, it is called the photochemical smog. The word 'smog' is derived from the two words - smoke and fog. It forms a yellowish brown haze especially during winter and hampers visibility. It also is a cause of many respiratory disorders and allergies as it contains polluting gases. Photochemical smog is mainly composed of ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and NOx. It is also known as brown air where solar radiation is intense. In seasons of lesser solar radiation or areas, smog formation is incomplete and the air is referred to as grey air.

 A simplified set of photochemical reactions involved in smog formation is as follows:

Reactions occurring inside engine: N2 + O2 2NO Reactions occurring in atmosphere: 2NO + O2 2NO2 NO2 NO + O (UV Radiation) O + O2 O3 NO + O3 NO2 + O2 HC + NO + O2 NO2 + PAN

Smog ozone may damage plant as well as animal life. Several species of plants are very susceptible to PAN in smog. PAN damages chloroplasts, which results in reduction of photosynthetic efficiency and growth of plants.

(cont.) Types Of Air Pollution

Green House Effect:
It is that type of air pollution that is formed due to the contamination of several important gases with the air. it is characterized when the gases called as green house gases move upward and combine with the atmosphere and then return back to the earth and destroy different types of things such as crops, plants, human lives, livestock etc. These gases are basically six in number and they are; methane, sulfur, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen and ozone Basically the pollution is raised due to the burning of fossil fuel. It is very harmful for the human skin and can also cause some kind of cancer.

(cont.) Types Of Air Pollution

Accidental Air Pollution:
It is the type of pollution that is characterized due to the causes that are accidentally in nature. Generated due to the different types of fuel consumption by the vehicles or when the forest are burnt different types of gases are evolved that are mixed with the air and pollute the air Sometimes this pollution also spread due to the plant leakage or different types of blasts in the furnaces of the manufacturing plants. Is further classified into:
Air pollution by forest fires by accidents to petroleum mass transport vehicles by leakage, blasts in industries

(cont.) Types Of Air Pollution Industrial Air Pollution

Commonly it is characterized due to the working of the thermal plants and also the different plants that are used to manufacture different types of fertilizers or pesticides. The reactions that are used to produce different types of building material such as cement or steel etc also encourage the production or toxic materials for producing air pollution. On the whole the air pollution due to the industrial wastes is called as industrial air pollution. Different type of atomic units also contributes in that type of pollution. It can be
Pollution from thermal power plants due to chemical fertilizers, food, pesticide and pharmaceutical industries due to cement, steel, paper, sugar industries due to textile and textile related industries due to petroleum and other industries due to atomic units

(cont.) Types Of Air Pollution

Transport Related Air Pollution:

It is that type of air pollution that is characterized due to the smoke emitting by different types of vehicles used for transportation. As fuel such as petrol or diesel burnt in the engine can emit different types of poisonous gases in the form of smoke. This pollution can cause different types of harmful diseases. It can be
Pollution due to all types of terrestrial transport system due to urban transport system due to other modes of transport

(cont.) Types Of Air Pollution

Dwelling related air pollution:
Dwelling related pollution is more correlated to wide spread use of advanced technologies like computers, refrigerators, air conditioners, etc., as well as mishandling or no-handling of waste disposal systems in urban agglomeration. A significant contribution is also made by natural respiration of thickly populated urban population. It can be
Pollution due to use of aerosols due to high density of population due to waste disposal system

Major Primary Pollutants Produced by Human Activity

Sulfur oxides (SOx)
especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (Nox)

especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion, and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electrical discharge. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.

(cont.) Major Primary Pollutants

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) a colorless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas also associated with ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration. It is otherwise recycled in the atmosphere in the carbon cycle. Volatile organic compounds VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality.

(cont.) Major Primary Pollutants Particulate matter

tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols those made by human activities currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease. Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use.

(cont.) Major Primary Pollutants

Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. Odors such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary Pollutants
Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs.
Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)

- similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor Air Pollutants

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive. A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulation in human and animal tissue, biomagnifies in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources
Various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are:
Anthropogenic Sources (Human Activity) Natural Sources

(cont.) Sources

Anthropogenic Sources
"Stationary Sources"
include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices.

"Mobile Sources
include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc.

Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement.
Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

(cont.) Anthropogenic Sources

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural Sources
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Reduction Efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment. Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations) expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles).

Control Devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate Control Scrubbers NOX Control VOC Abatement Acid Gas/SO2 control Mercury control Dioxin and furan control Miscellaneous associated equipment

Control Devices

Particulate Control

Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multi-cyclones) Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Baghouses - Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system. Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

Control Devices

Scrubbers

Baffle spray scrubber Cyclonic spray scrubber Ejector venturi scrubber Mechanically aided scrubber Spray tower Wet scrubber

Control Devices

NOx Control

Low NOx burners Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) NOx scrubbers Exhaust gas recirculation Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

Control Devices

VOC Abatement

Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon Flares Thermal oxidizers Catalytic converters Biofilters Absorption (scrubbing) Cryogenic condensers Vapor recovery systems

Control Devices

Acid Gas/SO2 control

Wet scrubbers Dry scrubbers Flue-gas desulfurization

Mercury control
Sorbent Injection Technology Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) K-Fuel

Dioxin and furan control Miscellaneous associated equipment

Source capturing systems Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Air Pollution Control

Particulate and SO2 Emissions VOC (Volatile Organic Chemicals) Emissions NOx Emissions

Particulate and SO2 Emissions

A. Cyclone Separators
Typically used to remove particulate from a gas stream, the gas enters tangentially at the top of a cylinder and is forced downward into a spiral motion. The particles exit the bottom while the gas turns upward into the vortex and leaves through the top of the unit. Pressure drops through cyclones are usually from 13 to 17 mm water gauge. Although seldom adequate by themselves, cyclone separators are often an effective first step in pollution control.

(cont.) Particulate and SO2 Emissions

B. Scrubbers
Separating solids or liquids from a gas is one use of scrubbers. However, separating a soluble gas from other gases is the application where scrubbers see the most action. Typically, a gas enters the bottom of a scrubber and moves upward while a liquid is sprayed from the top. The soluble gas is carried away by the liquid exiting out the bottom of the unit. The most common application is flue gas desulfurization using ammonia as the solvent or spray liquid. Pressure drops through scrubbers are usually low if they're sized properly, and scrubbers are generally about 50% efficient so multiple units are sometimes required or packing may be used to increase efficiency. The contaminated liquid exiting the scrubber represents it's own disposal problem.

(cont.) Particulate and SO2 Emissions

C. Semidry Scrubbers
The advantage of semidry scrubbers is in that they remove contaminates by way of a solid waste that is easier to dispose of (less expensive). Initially, the scrubbing medium is wet (such as a lime or soda ash slurry) then a spray dryer is used to atomize the slurry into the gas which evaporates the water in the droplets. As this takes place, the acid in the gas neutralizes the alkali material and forms a fine white solid. Most of the white solids are removed at the bottom of the scrubber while some are carried into the gas stream and have to be removed by a filter or electrostatic precipitator (discussed later). Although semidry systems cost 5-15% more than wet systems, when combined with a fabric filter, they can achieve 90-95% efficiencies. Dry scrubbers are sometimes used in a very similar fashion, but without the help of gas-liquid-solid mass transfer, these systems use much higher amounts of the solid alkali materials.

(cont.) Particulate and SO2 Emissions

D. Electrostatic Precipitators Boasting an efficiency in excess of 99%, electrostatic precipitators are very effective at removing tiny particles from gas streams. Gas flows through a rectangular duct containing rows of metallic strips. The strips are negatively charged by way of a small voltage that is applied (about 200 W for every 1000 ft3/min of gas). The efficiency is a result of the precipitators applying the collecting force to the particles only and not the gas. Periodically, the precipitators have to be taken offline and cleaned.

VOC (Volatile Organic Chemicals) Emissions

A. High VOC Concentrations (>500 ppm)
Three types of treatment are generally used for streams with high concentrations of VOC:
Refrigerated Vapor Condensation
Refrigerated vapor condensation can mean condensation at temperatures as lDue to the high cost of refrigeration, this option is usually reserved for expensive solvents whose recovery can justify the high operating costs.

Solvent Vapor Adsorption

Solvent vapor adsorption is a more common application where the VOC containing gas is bubbled through an organic solvent which "accepts" the VOC in the gas stream.

Flaring
Flares can be used to handle flow and concentrations surges along with other recovery methods for high concentrations of VOC.

The method chosen is dependent on allowable release concentrations and the value of the solvent.

(cont.) VOC Emissions

B. Moderate VOC Concentrations (100-500 ppm)
For moderate concentrations of VOC, incineration or regenerative carbon adsorption is utilized. At temperatures between 750-1000 0C, VOC are typically destroyed at a rate of 99%. Usually, a heat exchanger is used to preheat the gas stream with the flue gas to save on fuel costs for the incinerator (pictured left). Worth a mention is that the presence of chlorides may require a more exotic material for the incinerator and heat exchanger. Catalytic incinerators can save on fuel costs by destroying VOC on a catalyst's surface at 430 0C.

(cont.) VOC Emissions

C. Low VOC Concentrations (<100 ppm) Low air flows containing low concentrations of VOC are typically passed through "disposable" canisters of activated carbon. These canisters are purchased from the supplier then the spent canisters are traded for fresh canisters (ie. the suppliers typically handle the regeneration process). Activated carbon will typically have a loading capacity of 0.3 lbs of VOC per pound of carbon at 100 ppm and 0.15 lbs of VOC per pound of carbon at 5 ppm. Typical carbon costs are $2.30-$2.60 per pound. At higher flowrates, carbon adsorptionincineration combinations may be needed.

NOx Emissions
Nitrogen oxides are products of all conventional combustion processes. They are also a target of many environmental regulations, with good reason. A. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) In short, SCE is a process to reduce NOx to nitrogen and water with ammonia in the presence of a catalyst between 540-840 0F (282449 0C). Ammonia is usually injected at a 1:1 molar ratio with the NOx contaminants. Ammonia is used due to its tendency to react only with the contaminants and not with the oxygen in the gas stream. Ammonia is injected by means of compressed gas or steam carriers. Efficiencies near 90% have been reported with SCR.

(cont.) NOx Emissions

B. Exxon Thermal DeNOx Similar to SCR, the Exxon Thermal DeNOx process utilizes the NOx/ammonia reaction. However, this process does not use a catalyst to aid the reaction. Rather, tightly controlled temperatures are used to steer the reactions. Optimum reaction temperatures are found between 1600 0F (871 0C) and 1800 0F (9810C). Below the optimum temperature range, ammonia does not fully react and can be released in the flue gas. Above the optimum temperture, the following competing reaction can begin to take place: NH3 + 5/4 O2 ---> NO + 3/2 H2O Ammonia is injected in a 2:1 molar ratio in this process.