Environmental Pollution and Control - 4

Environmental Pollution
Unit - 4
P. Ravindra Babu, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Biotechnology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology
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Definition-Pollution
POLLUTION : It is defined as an excessive addition of certain materials to the physical environment (air, water, and land ) making it less fit or unfit for life.
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Air Pollution
What is air pollution?

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of impurities in excess quantity (concentrations) and duration in the atmosphere to cause adverse effects on plants, animals ,human beings and materials
Composition of Air:
Major Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (02) Minor Argon (Ar) Carbondioxide (Co2) Trace Neon(Ne), Helium, Methane, Krypton, Hydrogen, Xenon etc. Density of air is 1.54 gm/cc; Air pollution levels can be PPM or g/m3 expressed either as
Sources of Air Pollution

y NATURAL SOURCES: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sand storms, Hydrogen sulphide, and methane from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, etc., y ANTHROPOGENIC: Burning of fossil fuels, agricultural activities, industrial growth, automobile exhausts, domestic wastes, warfares etc.
Types of Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are generally grouped into the following two types: 1) Particulate pollutants 2) Gaseous pollutants
Particulate pollutants
The term particulate refers to all atmospheric substances which are not gases. They can be suspended droplets or solid particles or mixture of the two. Particulates can be composed of materials ranging in size smaller than 1 micron. Eg. Dust, smoke, fog, Mist, are the
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS On the basis of origin, air pollutants can be divided into Primary air pollutants and secondary air pollutants. PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS: There are directly emitted to the atmosphere, and are found there in the form in which they are emitted.
CARBON COMPOUNDS: Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide SULPHUR COMPOUNDS: Carbonyl Sulphide (COS), Carbon disulphide (CS2) Dimethyl sulphide [CH3S), Hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Sulphur dioxide (SO2), and sulphate (S02-4) HYDROCARBONS: Benzene, Methane (Marsh gas)
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOX): NO,NO2,N20 METALS: Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury. TOXIC SUBSTANCES: Arsenic, Asbestos, Carbon tetra chloride, Berylium, Chromium, Copper, Nickel, Polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAH3)
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic acids, Organic sulphur compounds etc. Finer Particles (Less than 100 in diameter.) Coarse Particles (Greater than 100 in diameter). Radioactive compounds: Radium- 222, Uranium-232, strontium 90, Plutonium -239.
SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS
y There are produced in air by interaction among two or more primary pollutants or by reaction with normal atmospheric constituents (Chemical or Photochemical reactions) y Ozone formaldehyde PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate). y Photochemical smog (coal induced, H202 organic peroxides) y Formation of Acid mist (H2SO4 )due to reaction of sulphur dioxide and dissolved oxygen, when water droplets are present in the atmosphere.
SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS
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Sources
Pollutants
Power Plants
Thermal Power Plants Nuclear Power Plants Hydro Power Plants Diesel generators Smoke, CO, CO2, SO x, dust. Argon Sr 90, CS-137, C-14 etc Methane from water logged area HC, CO, NOx Noise.
Industries
Non-Ferrous Metallurgical.. Sulphuroxides, smoke, Cox ,fluorides, (Rotating , smelting , refiring).. H2S ,Organic Vapors. Non-Metallic Minerals . Mineral and Organic Particulates. (Ceramic Manufacture, glass)
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Transportation: Automobiles (bike, cars, trucks, trains, aircrafts.) Pulp and paper (Kraft Process)
HCS, and Co, lead, olefin paraffin etc. Particulate Matter, H2S, mercaptans, methyl mercaptans, dimethyl sulphide SO2
Agriculture Spraying Pesticides, fungicides
Organic phosphates chlorinated hydrocarbon organic lead.
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Effects of Air Pollutants

ACID RAIN: Acid rain is a serious environmental problem that affects large parts of the world. Acid rain is particularly damaging to lakes, streams, forests and the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage.
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contains high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids contaminate drinking water and vegetation, damage aquatic life, erode buildings Alters the chemical equilibrium of some soils.
Effect on Humans:
On An average man breathes 22,000 times a day and takes in 16Kg of air each day. Eye, Nose, throat, respiratory tract irritation Co(g) is a poisonous gas (hemoglobin + CO Illness and death Hydrogen fluoride causes florosis, and mottling of teeth. Dust - silicosis (associated with silica dust) Asbestosis (associated with asbestos dust) Lead (from vehicles) Its high concentration can damage, liver, Kidney and can cause abnormality in fertility and pregnancy. Radio active Isotopes causes anemia (iron deficiency) leukemia (RBC deficiency), cancer, genetic defects
Carboxyhaemoglobin)
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Effect on Vegetation : Necrosis : Killing of tissues. Pigmented lesions: dark brown, black, purple, red spots on leaves Epinasty: Rapid growth of upper side of the leaves Chlorosis: Loss of green plant pigment chlorophyll (Yellow leaves) Abscission: Dropping of leaves.
Necrosis
Epinasty
Chlorosis
Abscission
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Effect on Materials
Corrosion of metals, eroding of building surfaces, fading of dyed materials, rubber cracking.
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Pollutant Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Respirable ** Particulate Matter (RPM) Lead (pb) Carbon Monoxide(CO)
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS* Concentration in Ambient Air Time Residential, Weighted Industrial Sensitive Rural and Average Area Area other Annual 24 hours Annual 24 hours Annual 24 hours Annual 24 hours Annual 24 hours 8 hours 1 hour 80 g/m3 120 g/m3 80 g/m3 120 g/m3 360 g/m3 500 g/m3 120 g/m3 150 g/m3 1.0 g/m3 1.5 g/m3 5.0 g/m3 10.0 g/m3 60 g/m3 80 g/m3 60 g/m3 80 g/m3 140 g/m3 200 g/m3 60 g/m3 100 g/m3 0.75 g/m3 1.00 g/m3 2.0 g/m3 4.0 g/m3 15 g/m3 30 g/m3 15 g/m3 30 g/m3 70 g/m3 100 g/m3 50 g/m3 75 g/m3 0.50 g/m3 0.75 g/m3 1.0 g/m3 2.0 g/m3
SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4 26 * Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India notification,1994 ** Particle size less than 10 m
Control of Air Pollutants

Atmospheric self-clearing Processes: The atmosphere, like a stream or river, has natural built in self clearing processes. Dispersion: Wind decreases the concentration of Pollutants at any place. Gravitational Settling: Particles larger than 20m in size settle down. Flocculation : Larges particles act as receptor for smaller ones to form a unit, the process is repeated until a small floc is formed, that is enough to settle under gravity.
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Devices used to Control Air Pollutants:

(i) Setttling Chamber : - To collect solid particles (ii) Cyclone precipitator: Centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended particles to the wall of the cyclone body. (iii) Filters: Cloth fabric, or fibrous medium, like mats of wool, cellulose may be used as separators. (iv) electrostatic precipitators: They utilize electric energy to assist in removal of particulate matter.
Settling Chamber
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Cyclone Precipitator
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Electrostatic precipitators:
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Water Pollution
Definition : The presence of foreign substances or impurities (Organic, inorganic, radiological or biological) in water making it unsuitable or unfit for use and cause health hazard..
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Major pollutants and their sources

BIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES: Bacteria, Virus, and Parasites INORGANIC IMPURITIES: Dirt and Sediment or Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids -Nitrates, Sodium, Sulfates, Barium, Copper, and Fluoride. Toxic Metals or Heavy Metals Asbestos Radioactivity
ORGANIC IMPURITIES: Tastes and Odors Pesticides and Herbicides Toxic Organic Chemicals Chlorine -- Trihalomethanes (THM's)
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Causes of Water Pollution
Two major causes:

Point sources and Nonpoint (diffused )sources. Point sources: Those sources which can be identified at a single location. Industrial Effluents, Sewerage systems, Power Plants, under ground mines, offshore oil wells.
Non point sources: sources: They are the sources of generalized discharge of waste water whose location cannot be easily identified. Eg: Run off into surface water, subsurface flow, soil erosion, acid rain deposition from the atmosphere. Leachate from municipal, industrial landfill sites and agricultural lands.
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International Standards of minerals in Water

Substance Ca Mg SO4 NO3 Chlorides Fluoride CaCO3 Desirable limit (Requirement) Mg/l 75 30 200 45 250 1.0 300 Permissible limit (mg/l) 200 100 400 100 1000 1.5 600
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Effects of Water Pollution

Physical Effects color, temp,pH Oxidation Effects BOD, COD Toxic Chemical Effects- Fluoride Chemical Nutrient Effects Eutrophication Micro Organism Effects Radio Nuclide Effects
BOD Level (in ppm) 1-2 3-5 6-9 10+
Water Quality Very Good Moderate Fairly Polluted Very Polluted
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Eutrophication
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Control of Water Pollution

Input Control: Pollutants should be prevented from being generated in the first place. Output Control: To control the pollutant and /or its effect after it has been produced. Developing of proper sewage and industrial effluent systems can reduce incoming point source of pollution
Domestic and industrial waste waters should be disposed of after treatment to the required level. Aforestation.
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Waste water treatment methods

Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) Sewage Treatment plants (STP) Common and combined treatment Plants (CETP)
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Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP)

It is designed to treat Industrial waste water to a standard acceptable To remove high amounts of contaminants like organics, debris, toxic and non toxic materials , polymers etc.
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Effluent treatment plant is based on the aerobic respiration method; It consists of three stages namely:
primary treatment, secondary bio-treatment, and tertiary treatment.
The effluent water is passed through various processes such as chemical dosing, aeration, and settling. The final treatment filtration cum absorption takes place by filters. Finally, the processed water goes for advance treatment and we get usable water which can be used further for irrigation and other purposes
Sewage Treatment Plants (STP)

Primary Treatment Primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks, commonly called "primary clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks." The tanks are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off
Secondary treatment It is designed to degrade the biological content of the sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.)
Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems. Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same amount of water
Tertiary treatment -Filtration Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins.
Soil Pollution
Definition : Contamination of the soil by considerable quantities of chemical or other substances, resulting in the reduction of its fertility (or productivity) with respect to the Qualitative and Quantitative yield of the crops.
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Sources of soil pollution

Industrial Wastes: Pulp and paper mills, Chemical Industries, Oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textile mills, steel industry, coal, mining ,cement, distilleries. Industrial waste mainly consists of organic compounds along with inorganic complexes and non biodegradable SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4 53 materials.
Radioactive pollutants:- Explosion of nuclear devices, Radium, Thorium, Uranium, Carbon (C-14). Some plants such as lichen and mushroom can accumulate Cs-137 and other radio nuclides which concentrate in grazing animals.
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Agricultural Practices: A wide range of agrochemicals are currently used by farmers to sustain food production
Fertilizers: Nitrogen Urea, Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium, Sulphate, Ammonium nitrate. Phosphorus Potassium phosphate, Ammonium phosphate. Potassium Potassium nitrate, Sulphate of Potash. Pesticides: Chlorinated hydrocarbon Pesticide endosulfan, Metoxychlor. Organochlorine Pesticide DDT
Biological agents: Pathogenic Microorganism present in the soil decrease soil fertility, Physical texture of soil. Bacteria Mycobacterium, Salmonella typhosa, Leptospira. Viruses Adenoviruses, Enteroviruses.
Effect of soil pollution

Soil acidification is the accumulation of acid in the soil. It is a natural process which, in natural ecosystems, operates over many thousands of years. However, under agricultural management, acidification can accelerate with the rate of change being detectable over decades.
Increasing the organic matter content of the soil can acidify soil. Soil organic matter contains acidic groups. Acidity is measured by determining the pH of a soil.
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Usually the rate of acidification is expressed as the amount of lime needed to neutralise the acid load generated each year (kg lime/ha/yr). Most farming systems acidify the soil at a rate of 100-200 kg lime/ha/yr although crops are generally more acidifying than pastures.
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When soil pH falls below 5.0, some nutrients may become less available (e.g. phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, copper) while other elements can reach toxic levels (e.g. aluminium, manganese). Microbial processes that facilitate nutrient recycling can be reduced and the ability of plants to use subsoil moisture limited as a result of stunted root growth. As soil, becomes more acidic, the activity of soil fauna such as earthworms is also reduced. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4 60
Salinization:
Soil salinization is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of soils and vegetation. high levels of salt in the soils landscape features that allow salts to become mobile (movement of water table) climatic trends that favor accumulation The ions responsible for salination are: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cl-
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Marine Pollution
The sea, which covers around 70 per cent of the earth's surface, is home to millions of fish, mammals, microorganisms, and plants. It is a vital source of food for both animals and people. Thousands of birds rely on the sea for their daily food supplies. Fishermen throughout the world catch over 62 90 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4 million tonnes of fish every year.
Definition: Degradation of the marine environment as a result of contamination of some sort by chemicals, biological agents, sediment and radiation.
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Sources of marine pollution

Point source: Any pollution from a confined and discrete conveyance, such as pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, well. It is clearly discernable in terms of origin (municipal sewage outfall, oil tanker spills, offshore oil well blowouts)
Non-point-source pollution: It is ill-defined or diffused sources, runoff (harbors) agriculture, forestry, urban runoff, marine debris, air pollution.
It is believed that everything that is carried away by rivers ultimately ends up in seas.
This leads to pollution by sewage, garbage, agricultural waste, fungicides, pesticides, and heavy metals; by discharge of oils and petroleum products, and by dumping of radioactive waste into sea. Dumping of plastic packing material into the sea.
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The following are the lengths of time it takes several forms of litter to biodegrade:
Materials Tin cans Painted wood Newspaper Paper towels Disposable diapers Time to degrade 50 years 13 years 6 weeks 2-4 weeks 450 years Materials Wool Plastic six pack rings Plastic bottles Aluminium cans Cotton Time to degrade 1 year 400+ years 450 years 200 years 1-5 months
Polystyrene foam Indefinite!

Effects of Marine pollution

Two basic ways by which chemical contaminants can affect living marine resources: 1. By directly affecting the exposed organisms own health and survival. 2. By contaminating those fisheries resources that other species, including humans, may consume.
Control of Marine Pollution

The oil can be collected off the water surface by specialized oil skimming barges, surface pumps, floating absorbents such as straw and saw dust, and manual mopping. Chemical Control: Sinking agents such as chalk, dispersants, emulsion breakers, and preventors (demoussifiers), poly isobutylene based recovery aids that convert oil into more easily handled visco elastic substance. Bioremediation : It is a process by which the degradation of organic chemical contaminants occurs as a result of biochemical activity of micro organisms.
NOISE POLLUTION
Any loud sound which is unpleasant and unwanted is commonly referred to as noise. It depends upon its loudness, duration, rhythm and the mood of the person. Noise is a physical form of pollution and is not directly harmful to the life supporting systems, namely air ,water and soil. It annoys and hurts people both psychologically and physiologically.
Units of Measurements
Two properties of sound are important, namely the pitch or frequency and Intensity or pressure or energy (loudness). Pitch or frequency refers to the rate of vibrations of the sound and is measured in Hertz (Hz). The unit for measurement of intensity is Decible. One Decibel is the smallest change of sound intensity which an average healthy human ear can perceive.
Stationary sources: Industrial sources : Textile, printing press, Metal works, engineering works etc. Use of loudspeakers on various occasions like festivals, elections, worships in temples, Mosque etc. During advertisements: Household gagadgets: Vaccum cleaners, TV, radio, stereo, grinder,etc. Agricultural Machines: Tractors, Harverters, tillers
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Sources of Noise
Mobile Sources: Road traffic Air traffic Railways Navigation
Motor Cycle 94(dB) (2-Cylinder 4 stroke) Scooter (1Cylinder 2 stroke) 80 db

Effects of Noise pollution

It effects on hearing ability. Human ears have sensory cells in inner ear for hearing. If these cells are subjected to repeated sounds of high intensity they can be permanently damaged leading to impairment of hearing.
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Outer ear
Middle ear
Inner ear
Auditory canal
Pinna Eustachian tube

Effect of Sound Waves

Physiological effects: Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain. Lowering of concentration and effect on memory. Psycological effects: Depression Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed sleep straining of senses. Emotional disturbance
Noise Pollution levels and its Harmful effects: Db Upto 23 30 60 60 90 70 120 Effects No disturbance stress, tension Psychological effects Damages health, high blood pressure. Otological (ear effects)
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Noise pollution control

The source path receiver concept
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At the source
Lubrication of machines generally reduces the noise produced. Tightening the loose nuts. Reducing the eccentricity generally reduces vibration and noise.
In the path
Keeping the noisy machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not escape and reach the receiver. Construction of noise barriers on roadsides for the benefit of the nearby residential communities. Sound-proof the building: Use heavy curtains on the windows, acoustical tile on the ceiling and walls, rugs on the floors. Seal all air leaks to reduce the noise coming in from outside .
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Receiver
provide earplugs
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General measures to reduce noise pollution

Don't use horns except in an emergency. Keep auto and truck engines, air conditioners, and appliances in good condition. Purchase the least noisy air conditioner or vacuum cleaner Create a demand for quieter appliances Respect your neighbor's right to quiet Tell your friends about the hazards of noise
General measures to reduce noise pollution Get Organized Become Knowledgeable Be Persistent: You Can Reduce The Noise! Keep conversation and rest areas in the home away from sources of noise. Turn down the volume of stereos, especially those with headphones.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Definition
Addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life.
Excessive raising or lowering of water temperature above or below normal seasonal ranges in the streams, lakes or oceans as a result of the discharge of hot or cold effluents into such water.
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The temperature of the water affects many physical, biological and chemical charecteristics of a river or lake. Cool water can hold more oxygen than warm water.
Sources:
Thermal pollution may be caused by : 1.Natural causes like forest fires & Volcanos 2.Nuclear, Hydroelectric & Coal fired power plants 3.Domestic sewage
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Nuclear Power plants

Nuclear Power plants use water as a cooling agent. After the water is used, its it put back into a water supply at 9 - 20C Emissions form nuclear reactor increases the temperature of water bodies
Coal fired power Plants

Coal is utilized as a fuel condenser coils are cooled with water from nearby lake or river The heated effluents decrease the DO of water Damages the marine organisms
Industrial Effluents
Discharged water from steam - electric power industry using turbo generators will have a temperature ranging from 6- 9 C than the receiving water In modern station, producing 100MW, nearly one million gallons are discharged in an hour with increase in temperature of the cooling water passing by 8- 10 C
Domestic sewage
Sewage is commonly discharged into lakes, canals or streams Municipal sewage normally has a higher temperature than the receiving water Increase in temperature of the receiving water decreases the DO of water. The foul smelling gases increased in water resulting in death of marine organisms
Effects:
The increase in temperature can cause following effects: 1.Change in water properties 2.Disturbed ecosystem 3.Reduced dissolved oxygen 4.Increased bacterial growth 5.Rate of Photosynthesis 6.Thermal shock 7.Increase in toxicity.
Control of thermal pollution:

Temperature of water can be reduced by taking water to wet or dry cooling towers .
Cooling ponds Spray ponds Artificial lakes
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Effects of thermal pollution

Thermal shock: shock: The sudden change in temperature due to hot waste water can be of harm to fish and other aquatic animals that have been used to a particular level of water temperature; this invariably can cause fish to migrate to a more suitable environment. Thermal enrichment: enrichment: This is when heated water from power plants may be used for irrigation purposes to extend plant growing seasons, speed the growth of fish and other aquatic animals for commercial purposes.
Thermal comfort
Human thermal comfort is defined by ASHRAE as the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment (ASHRAE Standard 55). (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers) Maintaining thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC design engineers ("Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning)
Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Any heat gain or loss beyond this generates a sensation of discomfort
Importance of thermal comfort

It can affect the distraction levels of the workers, and in turn affect their performance and productivity of their work. Also, thermal discomfort has been known to lead to Sick Building Syndrome symptoms.
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Heat island Effect

The phenomenon was first investigated and described by Luke Howard in the 1810s Heat island refers to urban air and surface temperatures that are higher than those of nearby rural areas. Many American cities and suburbs have air temperatures up to 10 F (5.6 C) warmer than their surrounding natural land cover.
Nuclear Pollution
Radioactive (nuclear) pollution is a special form of physical pollution related to all major life-supporting systemsair, water and soil. Radioactivity is the phenomenon of emission of energy from radioactive isotopes (i.e. unstable isotopes), such as Carbon-14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium239, Radium-226, etc. The emission of energy from radioactive substances in the environment is oftenly called as 'Radioactive Pollution'.
Uranium
Uranium is in limited supply, so nuclear energy is considered nonrenewable. The reason uranium is chosen is because it is radioactive. Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes, emit subatomic particles and high radiation as they decay into lighter radioisotopes, until they become stable. The isotope uranium235 decays into a series of daughter isotopes. The rate at which each radioisotope decays is determined by the isotopes half life, the amount of time it takes for one half of half the atoms to give off radiation and decay.
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Radioisotopes can have half lives ranging from fractions of a second to billions of years. The halflife if uranium 235 is 700 million years. After several years in a reactor, enough uranium has decayed so that the fuel loses its ability to generate enough energy, and it must be replaced with new fuel. In some countries, the spent fuel is reprocessed and used again, but in most countries, spent fuel is disposed of as radioactive waste.
Uranium
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Measuring Nuclear Radiation

One way measure radiation is to count the number of nuclear transformations or explosions which occur in a given unit of radioactive substance per second. This measure is usually standardized to radium, the first radioactive substance to be discovered and widely used. One gram of radium undergoes 3. 7 x 1010 nuclear transformations or disintegrations per second. The activity of 1 gram of radium is called 1 curie (Ci), named for Madame Marie Curie. In recent radiation protection guides, the curie is being replaced by the becquerel, which indicates one atomic event per second. One gram of radium would equal 1 curie of radium or 3.7 x 1010 becquerels of radium.
Sources
The sources of radioactivity are both natural and manmade. The natural sources include: (i)Cosmic rays from outer space: The quantity depends on altitude and latitude, it is more at higher latitudes and high altitudes. (ii) Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth's crust. People have been exposed to low levels of radiation from these natural SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4 millenia. sources for several
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Man-made sources But it is the man-made sources which are posing a threat to mankind. Nuclear wastes (i.e. waste material that contains radioactive nuclei) produced during the: Mining and processing of radioactive ores; use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants ; use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications; and use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons. The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnostic use of X-rays, radioactive isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.
Effects
The effects of radioactive pollutants depends upon half-life, energy releasing capacity, rate of diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric conditions and climatic conditions such as wind, temperature and rainfall also determine their effects. All organisms are affected from radiation pollution, and the effects are extremely dangerous. The effects may be somatic (individual exposed is affected) or genetic (future generations) damage. The effects are cancer, shortening of life span and genetic effects or mutations.
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Effects
The result of cell exposure to radiation causes cell death or cell alteration. The change or alteration can be temporary or permanent. It can leave the cell unable to reproduce itself. Radiation damage can cause the cell to produce a slightly different hormone or enzyme than it was originally designed to produce still produce, leaving it able to reproduce other cells capable of generating this same altered hormone or enzyme. Eventually there may be millions of such altered cells. If the radiation damage occurs in germ cells, the sperm or ovum, it can cause defective offspring. The defective offspring will in turn produce defective sperm or ova, and the genetic `mistake' will be passed on to succeeding generations, reducing their quality of life until the family line terminates in sterilization and/or death.
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Some of the possible effects are : (i) Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells. This affects the genetic make-up and control mechanisms. (ii) Exposure at low doses of radiations (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to suffer from fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible. (iii) Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are reduced, natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails to clot, and the irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding. (iv) Higher irradiation doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of heart, brain etc. (v) Workers handling radioactive wastes get slow but continuous irradiation and in course of time develop cancer of different types. (vi) Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are experienced by man.
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Control measures
There is no cure for radiation damage. Thus the only option against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent radioactive pollution. For this: leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels, fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped; safety measures should be enforced strictly; waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective;
there should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in the risk areas; preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not exceed the permissible limits; appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure; and safety measures should be strengthened against nuclear accidents.
Radiation Effects
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Nuclear Disasters
In 1986, an explosion at the Chernobyl plant in Ukraine caused the most severe nuclear power plant accident in history. Engineers turned off the safety systems to conduct tests. Human error combined with unsafe reactor design caused an explosion that destroyed the reactor and sent clouds of radioactive debris into the atmosphere for almost 10 days. The land for at least 19 miles around the plant is still contaminated today. Atmospheric currents carries radioactive fallout from Chernobyl to the rest of the Northern Hemisphere. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4 114
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Solid Waste
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SOLID WASTE
Definition: Solid waste Refuse from places of human or animal habitation." "useless or worthless material; stuff to be thrown away." A resource that is not safely recycled back into the environment or the marketplace."
All solid and semi-solid wastes arising from human activities, are discarded as useless or unwanted are included in the term 'Solid-Wastes' or 'Refuse'. The quantity of solid-wastes produced depends upon the living standards of the population. It also depends on seasons.
Solid waste means all putrescible and nonputrescible wastes, including garbage, rubbish, refuse, ashes, waste paper and cardboard; discarded or abandoned vehicles or parts thereof; sewage sludge, septic tank or other sludges; commercial, industrial, demolition and construction waste; discarded home and industrial appliances; asphalt, broken concrete and bricks; manure, vegetable or animal solid and semi-solid wastes, dead animals, infectious waste, petroleum-contaminated soils and other wastes;
Putrescible means rapidly decomposable by microorganisms, which may give rise to foul smelling, offensive products during such decomposition or which is capable of attracting or providing food for birds and potential disease vectors such as rodents and flies.
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Garbage It includes putrescible organic waste like the animal, fruit or vegetable residues resulting from the handling, preparation, cooking and eating of foods.
Garbage: the four broad categories Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish. Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics. Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.
Rubbish: It includes combustible and non-combustible solid-wastes, excluding food wastes or putrescible materials. Combustible rubbish includes paper, card board, textiles, plastic, rubber, wood, garden-trimmings, etc. Non-combustible rubbish consists of glass, crockery, tin-cans, aluminum cans, metals, construction wastes, etc.
Solid waste
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Types and Sources of Solid-wastes

There are three general categories of solid-wastes: (i) Municipal wastes, (ii) Industrial wastes, and (iii) Hazardous wastes.
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Municipal wastes: Municipal wastes are those wastes which arise from residential - household activities, commercial (markets, hotels, garages, institutions, etc.) and open areas (streets, parks, beaches, highways, play grounds, demolition and construction wastes, street-sweepings, dead animals) etc.
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Industrial wastes: Industrial wastes are those wastes which arise from industrial activities. Hazardous Wastes: Typical hazardous wastes are radioactive substances, chemicals, biological wastes, flammable wastes, and explosives. Are those wastes that pose a substantial danger immediately or over a period of time to human, plant or animal life. A waste is said to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics, viz., ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity or toxicity.
sources of hazardous wastes

Industries, Nuclear plants, Hospitals, Research institutes, Laboratories
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Causes of Solid Wastes

The main causes for the rapid growth in the quantity of solid wastes are: (i) Over-population. (ii) Urbanization. (iii) Affluence. With production or per capita consumption, there is a tendency to declare items as obsolete, resulting in their discard. This leads, to solid waste pollution. (iv) Technology. Rapidly growing technologies for most economic goods are leading to returnable packaging to non-returnable packaging. For example, returnable glass bottles/ containers being replaced by non-returnable cans, plastic containers, etc.
Effects of Solid Wastes Pollution

Causes various health and environmental hazards, such as : Diseases like bacillary dysentery, diarrhoea and amoebic dysentery may result in humans from eating contaminated food and water contamination through flies, which breed on the refuse dump and solid waste. Rats depending upon these solid wastes may also cause plague, salmonellosis, trichinosis, endemic typhus like diseases through direct bite. The crops and water supply may also get contaminated and may result in large scale epidemic of cholera, jaundice, gastrointestinal diseases, hepatitis etc.
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E-waste management
e-Waste for short - or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) - is the term used to describe old, end-of-life or discarded appliances using electricity. It includes computers, consumer electronics, fridges etc which have been disposed of by their original users

Environmental Pollution and Control - 4

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Environmental Pollution and Control - 4

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Environmental Pollution

What is air pollution?

Sources of Air Pollution

Types of Air Pollutants

SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

Agriculture Spraying Pesticides, fungicides

Organic phosphates chlorinated hydrocarbon organic lead.

Effects of Air Pollutants

Control of Air Pollutants

Devices used to Control Air Pollutants:

Major pollutants and their sources

Causes of Water Pollution

Two major causes:

International Standards of minerals in Water

Effects of Water Pollution

BOD Level (in ppm) 1-2 3-5 6-9 10+

Water Quality Very Good Moderate Fairly Polluted Very Polluted

Control of Water Pollution

Waste water treatment methods

Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP)

Sewage Treatment Plants (STP)

Sources of soil pollution

Effect of soil pollution

Sources of marine pollution

Polystyrene foam Indefinite!

Effects of Marine pollution

Control of Marine Pollution

Motor Cycle 94(dB) (2-Cylinder 4 stroke) Scooter (1Cylinder 2 stroke) 80 db

Effects of Noise pollution

Pinna Eustachian tube

Effect of Sound Waves

Noise pollution control

General measures to reduce noise pollution

Nuclear Power plants

Coal fired power Plants

Control of thermal pollution:

Effects of thermal pollution

Importance of thermal comfort

Heat island Effect

Measuring Nuclear Radiation

Types and Sources of Solid-wastes

sources of hazardous wastes

Causes of Solid Wastes

Effects of Solid Wastes Pollution

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