Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CE 263
Introduction to Surveying
Definition: Definition: Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the earth s surface and locating the points in the field.
4. 5.
Decision Making selecting method, equipment and final point locations. Fieldwork & Data Collection making measurements and recording data in the field. Computing & Data Processing preparing calculations based upon the recorded data to determine locations in a useable form. Mapping or Data Representation plotting data to produce a map, plat, or chart in the proper form. Stakeout locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in the field.
2 Categories of Surveying:
1.
Plane Surveying surveying with the reference base for fieldwork and computations are assumed to be a flat horizontal surface.
Generally within a 12 mile radius the pull of gravity is very nearly parallel to that at any other point within the radius and thus horizontal lines can be considered straight.
2.
Geodetic Surveying surveying technique to determine relative positions of widely spaced points, lengths, and directions which require the consideration of the size and shape of the earth. (Takes the earth s curvature into account.)
7 Types of Surveys:
1.
2. 3.
4.
Photogrammetry mapping utilizing data obtained by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or satellites. satellites. Boundary Surveying establishing property corners, boundaries, and areas of land parcels. Control Surveying establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as a reference framework for other survey projects. Engineering Surveying providing points and elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects. projects.
7 Types of Surveys:
5.
6.
Topographic Surveying collecting data and preparing maps showing the locations of natural manman-made features and elevations of points o the ground for multiple uses. Route Surveys topographic and other surveys for long narrow projects associated with Civil Engineering projects.
Highways, Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.
7.
Hydrographic Surveying mapping of shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water. water.
Also known as bathymetric surveying.
2.
Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems.
Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization Developed several instruments:
Groma cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles Libella A frame with a plumb bob used for leveling Chorobates 20 straight edge with oil in notch for leveling
4.
18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking land claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English.
1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square sections
30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also called the Rectangular System)
1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control network and mapping Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many more.
20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased, and land value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990 s Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global positioning systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning) mapping Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information systems (GIS) Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the 21st century
Measurement of Distance
Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even though angles may be read precisely, the length of at least one line in a tract must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points.
More accurate measuring: taping, EDM (1966), GPS EDM and GPS are most common in today s surveys In pacing, one establishes the # of paces/100 by counting the # of paces over a pre-measured 300 line pre-
Measurement of Distance
Taping: Taping: applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a line a number of times.
Measuring the distance between two existing points Laying out a known distance with only the starting point in place
Measurement of Distance
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
6 Steps of Taping Lining in shortest distance between two points is a straight line. Applying tension rear chain is anchor and head chain applies required tension. Plumbing horizontal distance requires tape to be horizontal. Marking tape lengths each application of the tape requires marking using chaining pins to obtain total length. Reading the tape the graduated tape must be read correctly. Recording the distance the total length must be reported and recorded correctly.
Accessories
1. 2. 3. 4.
Chaining Pins set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths Hand Level used to determine required plumbing height Plumb Bob used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground Tension Handle used to maintain correct tension on tape
2.
Applying Tension
Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100 mark over point
Tension is applied by head chain person normally 12 to 30 pounds of pull Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to compensate for sag
Plumbing
One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal measuring plane. ONLY one end is elevated
This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground If a high spot exists in center, break tape by measuring to the top and then move forward to complete the distance
Slope Measurements:
Generally, measurements are made horizontally, but on even, often man-made slopes the distance can be manmeasured directly on the slope, but the vertical or zenith angle must be obtained.
Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope Distance Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope Distance
Stationing: Stationing:
Starting point is 0+00 and each 100 is one station @700 from starting point is Station 7+00 If distance is 857.23 from starting point, it is expressed as Station 8+57.23
Instrumental Error a tape may have different length due to defect in manufacture or repair or as the result of kinks Natural Error length of tape varies from normal due to temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag) Personal Error tape person may be careless in setting pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment
Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but personal error can only be corrected by remeasure. remeasure. When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or checked against a standard.
Tapes standardized at National Bureau of Standards in Maryland
Standardized at 68 degrees F and 12 lbs. tension fully supported.
Generally can correct for tape length, temperature, tension, and sag, but tension and sag are negated by increasing tension to approximately 25 30 lbs.
Transit
Transit is the most universal of surveying instruments primary use is for measurement or layout of horizontal and vertical angles also used to determine vertical and horizontal distance by stadia, prolonging straight lines, and low-order leveling. low-
Transit
Alidade (upper part)
Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected to a solid conical shaft called the inner spindle. Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle Also contains frames that support the telescope called STANDARDS Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the verniers, compass box, the telescope and its level vial
Transit
Horizontal Limb (middle part)
This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical shaft called the outer spindle (which holds the inner spindle) Also has the upper clamp, which allows the alidade to be clamped tight Also contains the horizontal circle
Transit
LevelingLeveling-Head Assembly (lower part)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 4 leveling screws Bottom plate that screws into tripod Shifting device that allows transit to move to 3/8 ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled The SPIDER 4-arm piece which holds the outer spindle Lower clamp allows rotation of outer spindle
Verniers
Least count = Lowest # of reading possible determines accuracy Least Count = (Value of smallest division on scale)/(# of divisions on vernier) vernier)
Scale Graduation
30 20 15 10
Vernier Divisions
30 40 45 60
Least Count
1 30 20 10
Verniers
3 Types of Verniers
1. Direct or single vernier reads only in one direction & must be set with graduations ahead of zero 2. Double vernier can be read clockwise or counterclockwise only is used at a time 3. Folded vernier avoids a ling vernier plate
of the graduations are placed on each side of the index mark Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors
Verniers
The vernier is always read in the same direction from zero as the numbering of the circle, i.e. the direction of the increasing angles Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from
1.Not using magnifying glass 1. Not 2.Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the wrong 2. Reading side of a double vernier 3.Failing to determine the least count correctly 3. Failing 4.Omitting 10 , 15 , 20 , 30 when the index is beyond those 4. Omitting marks
2. 3.
Operation of Transit
B
9 Steps
1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions 2. Set up the plates to read 0r and tighten the upper clamp. 0r (Upper and lower plates are locked together) 3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0r using upper tangent screw and 0r magnifying glass. 4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point, Xby rotating transit 5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in 6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent Xscrews. At this point the vernier is on 0r00 and the X0r Xhairs are on BS
Operation of Transit
B
7. Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until you are near pt. C. Tighten the upper clamp 8. Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper tangent Xscrew. 9. Read on vernier
If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A (using only lower motion), and then loosen upper motion to allow to accumulate.
If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly centered, and operated by an experienced observer under suitable conditions, there are only 2 sources for error.
1. 2. Pointing the telescope Reading the plates
Mean
(4d)z4 (4d + 360) z 4 (4d + 720) z 4 (4d + 1080) z 4
TOTAL STATIONS
TOTAL STATION SET UP WHEN TOTAL STATION IS MOVED OR TRANSPORTED, IT MUST BE IN THE CASE!!!!!!!!
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
ESTABLISH TRIPOD OVER THE POINT. OPEN THE CASE AND REMOVE TOTAL STATION, PLACING IT ON THE HEAD OF THE TRIPOD AND ATTACH SECURELY WITH CENTER SCREW. CLOSE THE CASE. GRASP TWO TRIPOD LEGS AND LOOK THROUGH THE OPTICAL PLUMB, ADJUST THE LEGS SO THAT BULLSEYE IS OVER THE POINT (KEEP THE TRIPOD HEAD AS LEVEL AS POSSIBLE). UTILIZING THE TRIPOD LEG ADJUSTMENTS, LEVEL THE TOTAL STATION USING THE FISH-EYE BUBBLE. LOOSEN THE CENTER SCREW TO ADJUST THE TOTAL STATION EXACTLY OVER THE POINT IF NEEDED. COMPLETE LEVELING THE TOTAL STATION USING THE LEVEL VIAL. CHECK TO MAKE SURE YOU ARE STILL ON THE POINT.
3. 4. 5.
SIGHT ON THE BACKSIGHT UTILIZING THE HORIZONTAL ADJUSTMENT SCREW. ZERO SET THE INSTRUMENT (THIS PROVIDES AN INNITIAL READING OF 0 SECONDS. LOOSEN TANGENT SCREW AND ROTATE INSTRUMENT TO FORESIGHT. TIGHTEN TANGENT SCREW AND BRING CROSS HAIR EXACT ON TARGET WITH ADJUSTMENT SCREW. READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.
TO CLOSE THE HORIZON: 1. SIGHT ON FORESIGHT POINT FROM ABOVE AND ZERO SET INSTRUMENT. 2. ROTATE TO FORMER BACKSIGHT AND ADJUST INSTRUMENT TO EXACT. 3. READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED. ANGLE FROM DIRECT AND INDIRECT SHOULD EQUAL 360 DEGREES.
POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT A PRISM (WHICH IS VERTICAL OVER THE POINT. PUSH THE MEASURE BUTTON AND RECORD THE DISTANCE.
YOU CAN MEASURE THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OR THE SLOPE DISTANCE, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU NOTE WHICH IS BEING COLLECTED. 1. IF YOU ARE MEASURING THE SLOPE DISTANCE, THE ZENITH ANGLE MUST BE RECORDED TO ALLOW THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE TO BE COMPUTED. 2. IF YOU ARE COLLECTING TOPOGRAPHIC DATA WITH ELEVATIONS, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE HEIGHT OF THE INSTRUMENT AND THE HEIGHT OF THE PRISM BE COLLECTED AND RECORDED.
THIS CAN ALSO BE SOLVED BY SETTING THE PRISM HEIGHT THE SAME AS THE INSTRUMENT HEIGHT.
2. 3. 4.
5.
6.
NEVER POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT THE SUN, THIS CAN DAMAGE THE COMPONENTS OF THE INSTRUMENT AS WELL AS CAUSE IMMEDIATE BLINDNESS. NEVER MOVE OR TRANSPORT THE TOTAL STATION UNLESS IT IS IN THE CASE PROVIDED. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO ROTATE THE INSTRUMENT UNLESS THE TANGENT SCREW IS LOOSE. AVOID GETTING THE INSTRUMENT WET, IF IT DOES GET WET, WIPE IT DOWN AND ALLOW TO DRY IN A SAFE AREA BEFORE STORAGE. BATTERIES OF THE TOTAL STATION ARE NICAD AND THUS MUST BE CHARGED REGULARLY. AT LEAST ONCE PER MONTH, THE BATTERY SHOULD BE CYCLED. CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN AT ALL TIMES, THESE UNITS ARE EXPENSIVE ($8,000 - $45,000)
Angular Units
Degrees, minutes, seconds (sexagesimal system) (sexagesimal
Circle divided into 360 degrees Each degree divided by 60 minutes Each minute divided into 60 seconds
Radians
1 radian = 1/2T of a circle = 0.1592*360 = 57r17 44. 8 1/2T 57r
If an exterior angle exists, subtract it from 360 to obtain the interior Angular closure should be checked before leaving the field
Bearings/Azimuths
Example
M L N
Azimuth
0-360r Number only Clockwise North
Example
B F
A E
C D
2.
Transit Rule: Used if angles are more accurate than distances (more accurate direction)
Correction Latitude (Side) = (Lat. Side/Sum all Lat.) X Lat. error Correction Departure (Side) = (Dept. Side/Sum all Dept.) X Dept. error
3.
4.
Crandall Method: Used when larger random error exists in linear measurements that angular. Directional adjustments from balancing are held fixed and distances are balanced by a weighted least squares procedure Least Squares: Based on the theory of probability. Angular and linear adjustments are made simultaneously. Hand methods are long and complex @not often done. Computer adjustment through existing software make it feasible, which is why it is often used today
A B C D E F A
3. 4. 5. 6.
Determine length using Pythagorean (a2 + b2 = c2) Determine reference direction Determine local using tan A = a/b Determine line direction
D A
Determine difference in coordinates Plot points and line projections Set up dual formulas (as Latitude and Departure) Solve for length Compute coordinate as sideshot C D 9938.7277 9448.9156 489.8121 5298.7122 4560.3990 738.3132
C F
PVT)
Procedure: Procedure:
1. Compute PVC and PVT elevations 2. Calculate total change in grade/station 3. Insert data to chart and compute final curve elevations
To find the elevation at the high point or low point, find the station at which it fall and include that -g1 station in the elevation computations xpt =
Leveling
Leveling is the determination of the elevation of a point or difference between points referenced to some datum Terms:
1. Datum any level surface to which elevations are referenced 2. Mean Sea Level (MSL) the average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19 year period at 26 tide stations along Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf 3. National Geodetic Vertical Datum nationwide reference surface for elevations throughout the U.S. made available by National Geodetic Survey (NGS), based on 1929 adjustment. 4. Benchmark relatively permanent object bearing a marked point whose elevation above or below an adopted datum.
Leveling
Most often Mean Sea Level is used
MSL varies along the coasts Pacific is almost 2 higher than Atlantic and Gulf
Leveling
The level surface parallels the curvature of the earth @a level line is a curved line, normal (B) at all points to plumbline (B
Line of sight is only normal at point of instrument A line with a sight distance of 1 mile using the earth s radius as 3959 mile, curvature change is 0.667 feet.
Refraction of line of sight of level is downward by a small amount The combined curvature & refraction amounts for short distances (normal sight dist. for levels) are:
100 200 300 500 = = = = 0.0002 0.0008 0.0019 0.0052 Value is small @ for most instances can be neglected
Leveling
Most common leveling instrument today is the Automatic or SelfSelf-leveling level has an internal compensator that automatically provides a horizontal line of sight and maintains this through gravity (prism hanging on pendulum) Differential Leveling: (Spirit Leveling) Most common type today
1. 2. 3. 4.
Determine the difference in elevation using a horizontal line of sight and readings on graduated rod Circuit must be closed on BM of origin or on BM of equal accuracy Process:
Reading on point of known elevation (BS) BS reading + BM elevation = HI Reading on point of unknown elevation (FS) HI FS = elevation of new point
Leveling
Systematic Error in Leveling 1. Inclination of line of sight due to curvature of earth and refraction generally very minimal due to short sights 2. Inclination due to maladjustment of instrument
3.
Both can be alleviated by equalizing length of BS and FS legs Usually ignored except in very precise work Would use same process as tape correction Minimized by carefully plumbing the rod or more commonly known as Rocking the Rod and taking the lowest reading
4.
Leveling
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Peg Test Set 2 marks at 300 apart, also mark center point in a relatively flat area Set level at midpoint and take readings at each end Determine difference in readings (difference in elevation) Move level to one end and setup so that level is just in front of rod on point Read rod by looking backward through scope (X-hair not (Xvisible), hold pencil on rod to determine reading Read rod at other end in normal manner Difference in readings should equal #3 If values are not equal, there is error
Most instruments have adjustment screws Adjust and repeat test as a check
Balance length of BS and FS (300 max) Make sure gun is level and pendulum free Turn through all BM s Give complete description of BM s and TBM s Have rod rocked Make sure turning points are solid Close all circuits on BM of same degree of accuracy
Incorrect rod reading most common viewing foot number above and recording it Parallax having the X-hair not properly focused XHeat Waves limit shot lengths
Field Notes
STA BS HI FS ELEV
Sum BS
Closure Error
Difference in measured elevation and know elevation Correction factor = closure / # turns
Error = 0.09 Turns = 12 Correction = 0.0075 / turn
If TBM s set, break circuit into sections Figure correction factor the same Figure correction by taking CF X # turns in section
Precise Leveling
Precise Leveling Accuracy obtained by quality of instruments and care taken in the field High quality automatic levels are utilized Level rods are equipped with rod level, rod shoe (to allow better setting on BM s); scale (on rod) is made of invar steel (not affected by temp generally called Invar Rod) Reading either taken by optical micrometer or a process called 3-wire leveling is used (all 3 wire are read and averaged)
Optical micrometer: line of sight deflected by turning micrometer screw to read subdivision on rod.
Rod division is read as normal & then fractional reading taken from micrometer screw, thus on normal rod readings to 0.0001 are possible
Topographic Surveying
Topographic surveying is the process of determining the positions, on the earth s surface, of the natural, and artificial features of a given locality and of determining the configuration of the terrain.
Planimetry location of features Topography configuration of the ground
Both produce a topographic map which shows the true distance between objects & their elevations above a given datum Topos can be done by field methods, or by photogrammetric methods. (Photo also requires some field work) Topo map is 1st step in a construction project
Topographic Surveying
Scale and accuracy: Both depend on what used for Method of Representing:
Most common is Contour Line Imaginary line on surface of the earth passing through points that have equal elevation Contour Interval Vertical distance between lines
Topo map with contour lines shows elevation of points on ground & shapes of topographic features (hills, etc.) USGS Topo 10 or 20 contour intercal Subdivision 2 or 4
Index Contour every 5th contour drawn heavier on maps Slopes & X-sections can be obtained from contours X-
Topographic Surveying
Interpolating can find elevation of any point or find contour line with known elevation of point Contour lines that close represent either a hill or depression and can be represented as:
Characteristics of Contours
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Each contour must close upon itself with within a map or outside its borders a contour line cannot end on a map except at the edge Contours do not cross or meet except in caves, cliffs & vertical walls where they can meet Contour lines crossing streams form V s pointing upstream Contour lines crossing a ridge form U s pointing down the ridge Contour lines tend to parallel streams
Characteristics of Contours
6. 7. 8. 9.
Contour lines are uniformly spaced on uniform slopes Horizontal spacing between contour lines indicated steepness of slope on ground Contours are generally perpendicular to direction of maximum slope Contours can never branch into 2 contours of the same elevation
Establish control points (horizontal and elevation) Shoot locations and turn vertical angles Used for large areas
Mine Surveying
Points are on roof of mine Reasons needed
1. 2. 3. 4.
Location in respect to boundaries Location in respect to other shafts Accurate maps (above and below ground) Quantities
Base receivers transmission, does corrections, sends corrections to receivers Limitations limitation of transmitter signal
Future of Surveying
Major advances in future
Remote Sensing (Government and Military) Arial Photographs
Design Professions
Every 10 years, must justify to Legislature that need for our license exists Surveyor have ULTIMATE liability Standards Laws Continuing Education Enough points every 2 years