Principles of Physiology For Pre- Pharmacy Students

(109 Z Physiology and Cell Biology)

By

Dr. Ali Abd El-Aal

Professor of Physiology
Zoology Department Faculty of Science Ain Shams University

E-mail: dr_ali2009@live.com

Knowledge and Understanding physiology part:

Enumerate the main types of nutrients and steps in their digestion, absorption and metabolism. Illustrate the functional organization and functions of the nervous, endocrine, respiratory, digestive, circulatory and urinary systems.

Topics
Nutrition: (types of nutrients, vitamins, minerals) Digestive system (digestion and absorption) Metabolism: free energy, biological oxidation, carbohydrate, fats and protein metabolism)

 Respiratory system: mechanism of respiration, gas exchange, transport of oxygen and CO2 Excretory system: structure of the urinary system, structure and function of the nephron, urine formation Circulatory system: cardiovascular system structure of human heart, cardiac cycle, heart sound) blood vessels blood composition, functions, coagulation

 Muscular system Endocrine system: chemical classification and mechanism of action - pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal and gonads Nervous system: structure of neurons electrical charge across the plasma membrane synaptic transmission and reflex arc - structure of the brain

Nutrition
Nutrition is the science of nourishing the body. The nutrients are subdivided into six classes:

1.Carbohydrates. 3. Proteins. 5. Vitamins.

2. Lipids. 4. Minerals. 6. Water.

Food is divided into three general categories according to their physiological functions:

1- Building and maintenance the cells and tissues.

(Proteins Minerals Water)

2- Supply energy.
(Carbohydrates Lipids - Proteins)

3- Regulation of body processes.

(Lipids - Proteins Minerals Vitamins - Water)

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2 to 1

CnH2nOn
Carbohydrates are classified into: a- Simple sugars. b- Compound carbohydrates:
oligosaccharides polysaccharides

Simple sugars
Simple sugars (monosaccharides) include trioses, tetroses, pentoses or hexoses depending upon the carbon atoms they possess. The most important monosaccharides are pentoses and hexoses which are arranged in a continuos ring to exert their biological activity. Pentose C5H10O5 sugars such as ribose and deoxyribose are important constituents of nucleotides, nucleic acids and many coenzymes. Glucose, galactose and fructose are physiologically the most important hexoses C6H12O6.

Glucose is arranged in a continuous ring to exert their biological activity

Compound carbohydrates
Compound carbohydrates are derivatives of monosacharide. Monosaccharides are joined together through glycoside linkage with the elimination of water at each linkage.
glycoside linkage

glycoside linkage

glycoside linkage

H2O

New glycoside linkage

Oligosaccharides
They are formed of few monosaccharide units. Disaccharides Trisaccharides Tetrasaccharides According to the number of monosaccharide units
Disaccharides are the most important oligosaccharides.

They are composed of two monosaccharide The physiological important disaccharides are:

maltose sucrose - lactose.

Polysaccharides
They are formed of 10 or more monosaccharide units joined together. The most important polysaccharides include:

glycogen (animal storage carbohydrates) starch, cellulose, chitin, mucopolysaccharides

Functions of carbohydrates
1. Glucose is used to release energy or storage in case of excess as glycogen. 2. Fructose is the nourishing material for sperms. 3. Galactose is used to make the lactose of milk. 4. Essential components of many mammalian tissues as: mucopolysaccharides of bones and tissues anticoagulant heparin blood groups (glycoproteins)

Lipids
The lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds which are esters of long chain fatty acids with alcohols. Glycerol ( 3C) Long aliphatic mono OH alcohol

Fats and Oils

Waxes

Oils are the predominant glycerides in plants (vegetable oils) and fats are the predominant in animals. -C=C-C=C-C-COO unsaturated fatty acids (Oils) -C-C-C-C-COOH saturated fatty acids (Fats)

Triglycerides

Compound lipids
They are esters of fatty acids containing other groups in addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid. They are classified into 3 groups:

(i) Phospholipids
phosphate group

(ii) Glycolipids
carbohydrate chain (mono- or oligosaccharides)

(iii) Lipoproteins
associated with proteins

Derived lipids
Derived lipids are obtained when the above groups of lipids are hydrolyzed.

steroids, sterols (cholesterol) , bile salts, fat-soluble vitamins, carotenoids and pigments

Cholesterol

Functions of lipids
Lipids have important roles in:
1. production energy. 2. some vitamins are found associated with lipids of natural food. 3. insulating material in the subcutaneous tissue and around certain organs. 4. lipoproteins serve as a mean of transporting lipids. 5. integral components of cell structures 6. providing elasticity of the lung. 7. blood clotting.

Proteins
Proteins are fundamental component of protoplasm of all living tissues, animals or plants. Protein molecule is constructed of a number of amino acids. Amino acids are organic compounds containing amino (NH2) and carboxyl (COOH) groups.

 Proteins consists of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and sometimes phosphorus. The simplest amino acid is aminoacetic acid (glycine). Amino acids may be aliphatic as glycine or aromatic as phenylalanine or heterocyclic as tryptophan.

 Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds giving a protein molecule.

Peptide bond

Essential amino acids Nonessential amino acids Isoleucine Alanine Leucine Asparagine Lysine Aspartic Acid Methionine Cysteine Phenylalanine Glutamic Acid Threonine Glutamine Tryptophan Glycine Valine Proline Serine Tyrosine

Peptides and polypeptides

A peptide consists of 2 or more up to 50 amino acid residues linked by a peptide bond or more. Polypeptides are long peptide chain containing large number of peptide bonds. The polypeptide molecule containing more than 100 amino acid residues are generally termed proteins.

Classification of proteins
Proteins are classified into three groups.

(i) Simple proteins

as albumins, globulins and glutelins.

(ii) Conjugated proteins

as nucleoproteins - pigments (haematine)glycoproteins, lipoproteins phosphoproteins.

(iii) Derivatives of proteins (derived proteins)

These are produced by the action of acids, alkalis or proteolytic enzymes: as metaproteins proteoses - peptones peptides.

Functions of proteins
Proteins play important roles in all biological processes:

1. Enzymatic catalysis 2. Transport and storage 3. Coordinated motion 4. Mechanical support 5. Immune production 6. Generation and transmission of nerve impulses 7. Hormone synthesis 8. Body-building and maintenance

Vitamins
The vitamins are generally divided into 2 major groups:

fat-soluble water soluble

Water-soluble vitamin Thiamine (B1)

Metabolic role Coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism Part of FAD,coenzyme in respiration and protein meta-bolism Part of NAD+ and NADP+ coenzyme in energy metabolism Coenzyme in amino acid meta-bolism

Deficiency symptoms Beriberi, loss of appetite, fatigue

Riboflavin (B2)

Inflammation and breakdown of skin, swollen tongue

Niacin

Pellagra, fatigue

Pyridoxine (B6)

Anemia, nerve problems

Water-soluble vitamin

Metabolic role

Deficiency symptoms

Pantothenic acid

Part of coenzyme A, in carbo-hydrate and fat metabolism. Coenzyme in addition of carboxyl groups Coenzyme in formation of nucleotides and haemoglobin Coenzyme in formation of proteins and nucleic acids Coenzyme in formation of proteins and nucleic acids Helps in building intercellular cement for bones, cartilage, skin

Similar to other B vitamins Rare; tiny amounts required Most common vitamin deficiency causes some cases of spina bifida (birth deformity) Pernicious anemia

Biotin

Folic acid

Cobalamin (B12)

Cobalamin (B12)

Pernicious anemia

Ascorbic acid (C)

Scurvy, anemia, slow wound healing

Fat-soluble vitamin
A (retinol)

Metabolic role
Part of visual pigments in eye Increases absorption of calcium and phosphorus used to build bone Protects blood cells, vitamins, and other molecules from oxidation Needed in synthesis of prothrombin for blood clotting

Deficiency symptoms
Night blindness, drying of mucous membranes Rickets in children

D (calciferol)

E (tocopherol)

Lysis of red blood cells, anemia

K (menadione)

Haemorrhage in newborns and who lack gut bacteria that produce vitamin K

Minerals
Mineral elements constitute an important group of nutrients essential for growth and regulation of the body processes.

Principle elements Calcium Phosphorus Sodium Potassium Magnesium Chlorine

Trace elements Iron Iodine Copper Zinc Manganese Cobalt Fluorine

Functions of calcium
a.It is essential for hardening bones and teeth. b. It plays an important part in the coagulation of blood. c. It is of great importance in maintaining the normal excitability of the heart, muscles and nerves. d. It plays an importance role in the maintenance of permeability of cell membranes.

Functions of phosphorus
a. Hardening of bones and teeth and helps to maintain the constant composition of body fluids. b. Phosphorus has an important role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism and in the storage energy bonds in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and CP (creatine phosphate). c. It is essential in muscle contraction. d. It is essential for the formation of phospholipids, nucleic acids, some coenzymes and the protein casein of milk.

Functions of sodium
Extra-cellular cation and is associated with: a- Muscle contraction. b- Transmission of nerve impulses. c- The maintenance of electrolyte balance in the body.

Functions of potassium
Intra-cellular caution. It is involved in: a. Many chemical activities inside cell including protein biosynthesis. b. A number of enzymes, including the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase, requiring K+ for maximal activity. c. The contraction of muscles. d. The transmission of nerve impulses e- The maintenance of electrolyte balance in the body.

Functions of magnesium
a- It is essential for neuromuscular irritability. b- It functions as activator for many enzymes.

Functions of chlorine
a- It is essential in water balance and osmotic pressure regulation as well as acid-base equilibrium. b- Chlorine is also of special importance in the production of hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice.

Trace elements
These elements are classified as follows: 1- Essential trace elements: iron, iodine,
copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium, chromium and fluorine.
All essential trace elements are toxic when their intake is sufficiently in excess of dietary requirements:

2- Possibly essential trace elements: nickel, tin, vanadium and silicon. 3- Nonessential trace elements:
aluminum, boron, germanium, cadmium, arsenic, lead and mercury.

Functions of some essential trace elements

Iron is essential for: a- formation of haemoglobin in the red blood cells. b- formation of myoglobin of the muscles. c- certain respiratory enzymes such as cytochromes oxidases. iodine is essential for: formation of thyroxine and triodothyronine, the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland.

Enzymes
General characters of enzymes 1- Catalytic power Enzymes increase the rate of a reaction within the cell environment. 2- Specificity Most enzymes are highly specific both in the nature of the substrate(s) which they utilize and also in the reaction they catalyze. For example, peptidase enzymes play on peptides only. 3- Regulation The third important property of Enzymes are regulated by small ions or other molecules.

Activation energy of enzyme reaction

Diagrams to show the the lock and key model of enzyme action.

Enzyme

Effects of pH and temperature on enzyme activity.

Co-enzymes Non-protein compounds participate in enzyme-catalyzed reactions and do not remain permanently bound to the enzyme. Some vitamins of B-complex act as Co-enzymes. Co-factors may be a metal ion such as Zn, Cu, Mg, K, Fe.

Enzyme inhibitors Enzymatic activities are inhibited by specific small molecules and ions. Many drugs and toxic agents act by inhibiting enzymes. Competitive inhibitor Non competitive inhibitor

Two distinct homeostatic mechanisms that regulate concentration of metabolites within the cell:

feedback inhibition precursor activation

Substrate

Inhibitor

Competitive inhibitor

Non competitive inhibitor

Allosteric effect
the regulatory molecule binds to its site, it appears to alter the shape of the enzyme in such a way that its activity is altered. This interaction between regulatory and catalytic sites brought about by a change in the shape of the enzyme - is called an allosteric effect.