Space Frame, Portal Frame, Shell Structure, Tensile Structure

Lecture 5

Introduction
The purpose of any structure in building is to transfer the loads of buildings plus any imposed loads to the structure to suitable foundation

long span structure

A type of structure as a consequence of the size of the span, technical considerations that are placed so high on the list of architectural priorities that they significantly affect the aesthetic treatment of the building

Historical context
Followed technological progress Started in the nineteenth century with the advent of the railways, which generated the need for long span enclosures At a time when the technology of cast iron structures was sufficiently advanced Progress from cast iron to wrought iron to steel in quick succession; means to build longer and larger structures and created a new architectural vocabulary.

Early development: Crystal Palace

Paxton and Paddington Station, Brunel

Early development
The development of larger spanning train sheds of Barlow and Ordish's St. Pancras Station (span of 74m), the Galerie des Machines for the 1889 Paris Exhibition by Contamin and Dutert (span of 114m) It innovated the principle of the three pinned arch, pioneered the use of structural steel and its massive proportions.

Galerie des Machines

 Early twentieth century technological advances the development of the airship The structural requirements were highly sophisticated, encouraged the development of lightweight structures; economical, long span, large volume. The largest: Goodyear Airdock at Akron Ohio, constructed in l 929, with an elegant parabolic three pinned arch structure spanning 99m. Shape was derived from wind tunnel tests designed to reduce air turbulence around the doors.

Mid development

 The increase in air transported to further developments in clear span sheds. The wartime requirements for economical, quick to erect, low profile hangars and later with the need for clear span hangars to house the larger passenger planes. The jumbo jet (span of 60m) has generated the design of long span space frame hangars, cable supported roofs, cantilevered structures,.

Later development

 The largest building in the world, the Boeing Assembly Building at Everett, Seattle.

 Throughout the twentieth century the use of long span structures for industrial and leisure uses. The introduction of the productionline assembly for the American car industry created the need for the single storey, roof-lit, wide-span industrial shed To suit the ever changing requirements with the design of more efficient steel structures and economical cladding systems for their enclosure.

Late development

 The need for large covered spaces to house swimming pools, indoor sports, conference centers and huge arenas challenging architects and engineers to create efficient economical and appropriate structural enclosures.

Structural options
Although it is possible to construct long span buildings of concrete, timber and aluminum, by far the most common structural material is steel due to its strength to weight ratio, ease of fabrication and cost. It is for this reason that this section concentrates on structural steel options, although the structural forms are common to other materials. Large single volume sheds can be conveniently classified according to their structural forms

Structural options
For simplicity, the main types of structural forms used for the design of large single volume sheds can be classified into the following headings: Beam Structures

Structural options
Portals and Arches

Masted Structures

Structural options
Space frames

Umbrella structures

Many building structures are hybrid forms using a combination of different systems.

Beam structure
Simple and commonly used, especially where the minimum internal volume is required. Common usage both in single span and multi-span form. Major advantages : they lend themselves to prefabrication in elements for ease of transportation and site erection.

Beam structure
Flat beam structure is used where the minimum volume of space is required within the desired clear height. The achievable span is then directly related to the depth of the beams; for normal loadings, would require a depth to span ratio of approximately 1:15 for solid web steel beams. Beams may be solid web or truss forms, offering a variety of opportunities for architectural design. They often lose to the trussed solutions in terms of services co-ordination where the open webs provide valuable routes for the services.

Box girder bridge

A box girder bridge is a bridge in which the main beams comprise girders in the shape of a hollow box. The box girder normally comprises eitherprestressed concrete, structural steel, or a composite of steel and reinforced concrete. The box is typically rectangular or trapezoidal in crosssection. Box girder bridges are commonly used for highway flyovers and for modern elevated structures of light rail transport. Although normally the box girder bridge is a form of beam bridge, box girders may also be used on cable-stayed bridges and other forms.

Box girder
Compared to I-beam girders, box girders have a number of key advantages and disadvantages. Box girders offer better resistance to torsion, which is particularly of benefit if the bridge deck is curved in plan. Additionally, larger girders can be constructed, because the presence of two webs allows wider and hence stronger flanges to be used. This in turn allows longer spans. On the other hand, box girders are more expensive to fabricate, and they are more difficult to maintain, because of the need for access to a confined space inside the box.

Early projects
1950s Mies Van der Rohe's Crown Hall building on the Illinois Institute of Technology campus 1960s Skidmore Owings and Merrill on a series of industrial buildings Team 4 on the Reliance Controls plant in 1965 at Swindon

Steel and concrete

Trussed Beam
Later, as the level of building services increased with the introduction of new technology, trussed beam solutions were more favoured, where the mechanical and electrical services are co-ordinated within the roof trusses.

Modified truss forms

Provide improved design solutions. In some instances the use of triangular beams may increase the efficiency of the longer span structures as was found to be the case on the Sainsbury Visual Arts Centre at the University of East Anglia by Foster Associates.

Truss form
Here the 2.5m deep triangular trussed beams span 35m onto triangular towers of the same depth. Has higher fabrication costs but has the advantage of being inherently stable making erection easier and reducing the need for secondary bracing. Potential buckling due to compressive forces can be shared and spans for cladding support are reduced.

Construction
Either form of bridge may also be installed using the technique of incremental launching. Under this method, gantry cranes are often used to place new segments onto the completed portions of the bridge until the bridge superstructure is completed.

Cladding and large span

The enclosures to the large sheds require particular attention to achieve performance and economy. Large uninterrupted areas of wall cladding demand clear simple statements and precise detailing. Profiled sheeting can be used in a range of ways to create different aspects. Profiled sheeting is used for cladding large areas because of the size of sheets which are manufactured, the weathering qualities and the cost. Used vertically or horizontally, the depth of profile is chosen to suit the required span and the shape to create the preferred visual effect.

Cladding

Cladding Panels
Panel systems can also be used to form the enclosure. These range from rain screen systems to bonded panels, and from smooth skins to rough textures. It is up to the designer to choose the most appropriate cladding to suit the particular requirements.

Concrete domes
In pre industrial age is used for the widest spans in the form of masonry vault or dome 19th century= comprehensive form active type of structure Advantages of RC= capability to resist tension, compression and bending Thinner construction Greater efficiency and span easier for adoption of improved cross section

Shells
2 types; made from framing members to which cladding is applied and monolithic shell either by casting concrete in place over complex frameworks or precast sections. Monolithic have a continuous abutments to deal with higher load associated with concrete Monocoques refers to a structure and enclosure which is combined in a single form as found in egg Shell forms vary from simple shell resembling extruded arch to complex ribbed structure

Shell structures

Skeleton frames
A series of rectangular frames placed at right angles to one another so that the loads can be transmitted from member to member until they are transferred to the foundations Concrete or steel or combination of both Timber is possible but also considered uneconomical

Masted structure
Popular as a means of providing lightweight structures for general use. Masted structures have been used in bridge building and tented structures Compressive form active structures produced in metal in the form of lattice arches or vaults.

Masted structure
The masted structure for East Croydon Station by Alan Brookes Associates with YRM/Anthony Hunt Associates: double column masts on the perimeter supporting pin-jointed beams which span the 55m across the railway lines below. Economies are achieved by the tension supports which allow the truss depth to be reduced to only 1.8m.

Masted structure
Long span metal and cable A series of 24m square umbrella modules which could be grouped in any configuration and this was achieved with a portalized structure of undulating beams supported from tubular steel masts with tension rods.

Mast supported domes

Tensile form active structures in high level efficiency for large single volume buildings

Cabled network structures

 For the large single clear span, the need for internal columns can be eliminated by the use of arched vaults or portals. Portal frame structure is when standardized beams sections are bolted together with a range of joints types. Commonly used for single storey buildings. Advantage of speed and economy. Their simplicity and efficiency provide good workable enclosures for manufacturing , storage and sport

Portal and Arches

Portal and Arches

Portal and Arches

The parabolic arched structure of the airship hangars at Akron, Sunnyvale and Weeksville, constructed between the wars in the USA, provided some of the most elegant long span steel structures ever built

Space frames
Take a variety of forms. Space structures are three-dimensional assemblies of linear members in which the interconnections are such that a load at any point is distributed in all directions throughout the assembly. With the loads spread, member sizes can be decreased which makes them an efficient and economic solution to long spans. They can take the form of flat double-layer grid structures or braced domes and vaults.

Space frame
Generally lightweight space trusses are manufactured from pre-galvanised steel coil up to 8.0 mm in thickness which is coldformed, using a continuous rolling process, to produce light weight channel sections and thin walled tubes.

Umbrella structure
In umbrella or tree structures, the roof cantilevers from a central column. The final option for consideration is the umbrella or tree structure in which the roof cantilevers from a central column and can be repeated and joined to other similar assemblies at each or any side to form a continuous structure.

Umbrella structure
Stansted Airport by Foster Associates. Here, a series of umbrellas, or 'steel trees The 'trees', which are 21m tall, consist of a cluster of 457mm diameter steel tubes which branch out at the 13m high level to support a shallow dome covering an area of 18mx18m.

Umbrella structure

Space grids
An impressive use of space grids and glazing can be seen in the atrium wall and roof

Space grids
However, the standard joints are only produced in two forms with lugs for the connection of bracing members either in line with the chord members or alternatively at 45 to the chords when viewed in plan. This limits the possible grid configurations to variations of the square on square or square on diagonal layouts.

Space grids advantages

All elements of the space grid contribute to the load carrying capacity. Loads are distributed more evenly to the supports. This can reduce the cost of the supporting structures especially when heavy moving loads may be applied to the space grid (e.g. overhead cranes). Deflections are reduced compared to plane structures of equivalent span, depth and applied loading.

advantages
The open nature of the structure between the two plane grids allows easy installation of mechanical and electrical services and air-handling ducts within the structural depth. The statically redundancy of space grids means that, in general, failure of one or a limited number of elements, for instance, the buckling of a compression member, does not lead to overall collapse of the structure.

advantages
Space grid structures are resistant to damage caused by fire, explosion or seismic activity. Modular space grids are usually factory fabricated (thus producing accurate components) easily transportable and simple to assemble on site. Because of their modular nature they may be extended without difficulty and even taken down and re-erected elsewhere. Their cost, which can be high when compared with alternative structural systems. This is particularly true when space grids are used for short spans.

Disadvantages
When space grids are used to support floors some form of fire protection may be required. This is difficult to achieve economically due to the high number and relatively large surface area of the space grid elements. The standardised modular nature of most space grids can impose a geometric discipline of their own. This sometimes makes difficult the use of irregular plan shapes and imposes control on the location of supports. Visually, space grid structures are very 'busy'. The number and complexity of joints can lead to longer erection times on site.

Detailing space grids

variety of issues need to be considered in detailing space grid structures. The main considerations for the detailed design of bars, members, modules, nodes and joints are material properties, element structural behaviour and dimensional accuracy. Other issues which must be considered include support details, cladding systems, site construction. The majority of space frame systems for building structures are manufactured from steel or aluminium although timber, concrete and reinforced plastics are also used. Although

Construction requirement
In three-dimensional structures, and long-span structures in particular, dimensional accuracy is of paramount importance as small variations in element dimensions may accumulate to produce gross errors in the dimensions of the final structure.

Construction requirements
As long span structures, space grids require a suitable set of fixed and sliding bearings to enable them to resist lateral loads whilst allowing thermal expansion / contraction to take place. Space grids form quite rigid plates so it is very important that any potential movements are accommodated in the support details. It is necessary to install the space grid on a combination of fixed and sliding bearings to permit free thermal movement whilst restraining the lateral movement caused by wind forces and transmitting these forces to the supports.

 Alternatively, the space grid may be rigidly fixed to some or all of its supports. In this case, both the space grid and the substructure must be designed to cater for the forces generated by temperature change. Thermal expansion and contraction was considered to occur relative to a notional fixed point at the centre of the roof structure with the tops of the columns being forced to move out or in as dictated by the change in roof dimensions.

Rainwater runoff
As most space grid applications are for roofs it is necessary to provide adequate falls for rainwater run-off and an additional pre-camber may be applied to counteract the expected vertical deflection under load.

Erection
Assembly of the individual space grid elements or modules on a temporary scaffold support - this is normally only used when no other method is possible as the scaffolding is expensive; however, it may be required in large grids to establish a structurally stable area for later connection of preassembled sections.

Erection
Connection in the air, in which space grid elements or modules are lifted individually by crane for connection to areas of the grid that have already been installed - this is more appropriate for heavy modular systems when the site cannot be obstructed by assembly of the grid at ground level.

 Assembly of grid elements or modules into panels before lifting by crane and connection in the air - this is a good compromise where it would be difficult to lift the whole space grid as one piece or where it is not possible to assemble the whole grid on the ground, due to lack of space. An important advantage may be gained from assembling the grid at or slightly above ground level prior to lifting it to its final position. The installation of services and/or cladding is facilitated as this can be carried out from the ground.

Erection

Grid configuration
In square grids the grid lines can be parallel to the edges of the grid or set on the diagonal, usually at 45 to the edges. Both of these are two-way grids having members orientated in two directions, however, plane grids of triangles and hexagons produce threeway grids with members orientated in three directions. More complex grid geometries may be produced by combining the regular polygons or by using them in combination with other polygonal shapes (e.g. triangles and squares, triangles and hexagons, squares and octagons).

Single layer grids

 More open grid geometries are often possible in the lower layer of a doublelayer grid because the members are generally in tension, i.e. not subject to buckling, and may be longer than the upper compression members. In modular systems it is often possible to omit complete modules in a regular pattern to produce a more open geometry and reduce the self-weight of the structure.

Double layer grids

Space framing

 the architect is not limited to these profiles as special edge details can be manufactured to order and fixed to the standard nodes or modules but there will obviously be a cost penalty.

Space frame edges details

Latest technology
A recent development in space grid structures has been the use of deployable, folding and retractable systems.

Tunnel Building construction

Can be found in densely populated urban areas with limited land available for development. Tunnel form buildings have also been the choice for rebuilding earthquake-affected towns and urban areas because they fulfill the requirements of easy and rapid construction, and because their acknowledged excellent earthquake performance that makes them popular with occupants. Commonly found in both sub-urban and urban areas.

 The vertical load-resisting system is reinforced concrete structural walls (with frame). The walls and the slab carry all gravity loads. Gravity loads are transferred uniformly to the walls by slabs. A mat foundation is commonly used to transmit the gravity loads to the soil. The lateral load-resisting system is reinforced concrete structural walls (with frame). Structural walls provide the lateral-load resistance. The walls and the slab are cast in a single operation using specially designed half-tunnel-steel forms (upside down U shape) that maintains a certain size as

Diaphragm Walls
A diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete wall constructed in the ground using underslurry techniques. Walls with widths of between 300mm and 1500mm can be formed in this way to depths in excess of 60 meters Walls can be installed to considerable depths Walls with substantial thickness can be formed The system is flexible in plan layout The wall can easily be incorporated into the permanent works The wall, or certain sections, can be designed to carry vertical load

 Diaphragm wall is a kind of retaining wall which appropriate for using in a limited area of work and better protection than the "Sheet Pile" type. Diaphragm wall can deep penetrate vertically and perform as a pile in carrying the weight. Then this wall is best for the building which has a deep foundation or many storeys of underground level. With selected and carefully quality control for materials used such as concrete, steel bar, and bentonite for stronger and better reinforcement

 Basement construction time can be reduced Economical, positive solution for large, deep basements in saturated and unstable soil profiles Noise levels limited to engine noise only No vibration during installation Under certain conditions diaphragm walls may be used as cantilever, braced or tie-back walls.

Aerated construction

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC),

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), also known as autoclaved cellular concrete (ACC) or autoclaved lightweight concrete (ALC),[1] was invented in the mid-1920s by the Swedish architect and inventor Johan Axel Eriksson.[2][3] It is a lightweight, precast building material that simultaneously provides structure, insulation, and fire and mold resistance. AAC products include blocks, wall panels, floor and roof panels, and lintels.

 Highly thermally insulating concrete-based material used for both internal and external construction. Besides AAC's insulating capability, one of its advantages in construction is its quick and easy installation, for the material can be routed, sanded, and cut to size on site using standard carbon steel bandsaws, hand saws, and drills.

 aerated lightweight concrete blocks lightweight tilt-up panels foamed concrete floor screeds, sound and thermal insulation, geotechnical and ornamental concrete applications.

 Steel studs are manufactured in the same sizes as dimensional lumber: 2 4 and 2 6. For floor joists and roof rafters, they are available in 2 8, 2 10, and 2 12. These studs, joists, and rafters are manufactured for use in both non load-bearing partitions and loadbearing walls. The studs used in partition walls are usually 25-gauge galvanized steel;

Building Construction: Lightweight Steel Framing

 Steel-frame walls can be assembled as units, tipped up, plumbed and leveled, and attached to the floor and top supports. The bottom and top channels can also be attached to the floor and ceiling, and the studs can be attached individually to them. Studs for load-bearing partitions will run from the floor deck to the underside of the floor or roof structure above. Fire-rated partitions will run from the floor deck to the underside of the floor or roof deck

Sheathing
Exterior walls will be sheathed with one of the fiberglass-faced gypsum sheathing materials or fire retardant-treated plywood (photo 12). Sheathing is usually attached with bugle-head, selfdrilling drywall screws. The code may require a layer of house wrap over the sheathing, and the exterior can be finished with a variety of exterior finishes such as aluminum, vinyl, or cement board siding; brick veneer; cultured stone; or another surface selected by the owner

This steel stud curtain wall was sheathed with fiberglass-faced gypsum board and finished with an exterior insulating foam system3 made up of layers of polystyrene insulating board and layers of troweled-on plastic coating in different colors. The roofing material is colored aluminum panels joined with standing seams, installed over an insulated wood deck.

Doubled steel joists support a steel roof deck with extruded foam insulating board, a rubber roof membrane, and stone ballast. They are supported by studs and structural steel. Note the row of steel X-braces at the right in the photo; they were installed to prevent the joists from twisting under loads.

Five steel trusses were assembled on the ground with both permanent and temporary bracing. The completed unit will be set as one piece on top of the steel stud walls and attached with selfdrilling screws. The temporary braces will be removed, and the roof sheathing will be attached with self-drilling buglehead screws.

Steel trusses built from galvanized steel members designed in dimensional lumber sizes to be used specifically for trusses. A steel stud is a channel with one long side missing; a truss member is a channel with one short side missing.