Acoustics

Sound Generation Basic Formulas Room Acoustics

Definitions
Acoustics defined as the generation, transmission and reception of energy in the form of vibrational waves in matter Sound is a physical wave, or mechanical vibration, or simply a series of pressure variation, in an elastic medium

Sound Generation

Condensation Rarefraction

Condensation

Crowding together of the air molecules caused by the movement of a body in back and forth motion
condensation

Rarefaction

Thinning out of air molecule

rarefaction

Sound
A physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing A pressure wave that propagates through air with a speed of approximately 330m/s.

Sound Categories
Music Noise Speech

Human Ear
Ear is the organ of hearing and balance Consists of three sections:

Outer ear Middle Ear Inner ear

Sound frequencies

Subsonic or Infrasonic 20Hz

20kHz

Ultrasonic

Supersonic refers to velocity greater than sound velocity (330m/s)

Ten octaves in human hearing range are:

1st octave (20Hz 40Hz) 2nd octave (40Hz 80Hz) 3rd octave (80Hz 160Hz) 4th octave (160Hz 320Hz) Lower bass Upper bass

5th octave (20Hz 40Hz) 6th octave (40Hz 80Hz) 7th octave (1280Hz-2560Hz)
8th octave (2560Hz-5120Hz)

Lower midrange

Upper Midrange

9th octave (5120Hz 10240Hz) Treble 10th octave (10240Hz 20480Hz)

Octave
Is an interval between any two frequencies that have a tonal ratio of 2 to 1. The tone frequency is twice that of the given tone

Classes of Speech
Voiced sounds produced when our vocal chords vibrate as a result of our lungs generating sufficient pressure to open our vocal folds Unvoiced sounds refer to the period of time when our vocal folds are normally open , allowing air to pass from our lungs freely into the rest of our vocal tract. Plosive sounds results from the complete closure of our vocal tract resulting in air pressure becoming extremely high behind the closure

Attributes of sound

PITCH highness or lowness of a musical tone as determined by the rapidity of the vibrations producing it
Measurable quantity: frequency of sound waves MEL is the unit of pitch

Attributes of sound

LOUDNESS human impression of the strength of the sound

Loudness level is measured by the sound pressure level of a standard pure tone of specified frequency which assessed by normal observers as being equally loud. PHON is the unit of loudness level.

Standard pure tone is produced by a sensibly plane sinusoidal progressive sound wave coming from directly in front of the observer and having a frequency of 1000Hz. The sound pressure level in the free progressive wave is expressed in dB above 2x105 N/m2 or 20uPa

SONE is the unit of loudness on a scale designed to give scale numbers approximately proportional to the loudness.

PHON = 40 + 10 log2 (sone)

Attributes of sound

Timbre (tone color) characteristic tonal quality of sound.

Pure Tone a sound in which the sound pressure varies sinusoidally with time

Tempo is the speed of sound (fast or slow) Rhythm relates to a sonic time pattern maybe simple, constant, complex or changing

Attributes of sound
Attack is the way a sound begins (can be hard, soft, crisp or gradual) Duration refers to how long a sound blasts (short or sustained sounds) ; time interval between its beginning and end points Decay refers to how fast a sound fades from a certain loudness (can be quick, gradual or slow)

Apparent loudness and loudness levels

0dB 15dB 30dB 60dB 80dB 130dB 150dB

Very faint

Faint

Moderate

Loud

Very Loud

Deafening

Permanent damage to hearing 120dB threshold of pain 60dB Average conversation 0 dB -Threshold of hearing

Problem

Given the following data: SIL Loudness Loudness (dB) (sone) level (phon) 60 3.2 55 60 5.4 62 60 5.9 63 60 4.7 60 Compute for: total loudness total loudness level

Frequency Parameters

Harmonics the integral multiples of the fundamental

Nth Harmonics = n x fF where: fF = fundamental frequency Nth overtone = (n+1) x fF Nth octave = 2n x fF Nth decade = 10n x fF

Overtone musical term for harmonics

Octave frequency interval of 2

Decade frequency interval of 10

Sound Velocity

Velocity = frequency x wavelength

v=f/

Sound velocity in gases

v = P0 / o Where: = ratio of the specific heat at constant volume P0 = the steady pressure of the gas (N/m2) o = the steady or average density of the gas

Sound Velocity

Sound velocity in dry air

v = 331.45 + 0.05 m/s v = 1087.42 + 0.16 ft/s

Velocity of sound in air for a range of about 200C change in temperature

v = 331.45 + 0.607 Tc m/s v = 1052.03 + 1.016 TF ft/s For TC > 200 C v = 331.45 TK/273 m/s

Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level

Sound pressure, P alternating component of the pressure at the point in a sound field

Unit : N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)

Sound Pressure Level, SPL

SPL = 20 log P/Po where: Po = reference sound pressure or the average threshold of hearing @ 1000Hz Po = 2 x 10-5 Pa Po = 20uPa Po = 0.0002 ubar Po = 2.089 lb/ft2

Other quantities of Pressure

200 Pa in the region of instantaneous damage 105 normal atmospheric pressure

For multiple source but different SPL

SPLT = 20 log PT / Po Where: PT = P12 + P22 + P32 ++ PN2

For multiple source but the same SPL

SPLT = SPL + 10 log N Where: PT = PN

Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level

Intensity (I) is directly proportional to the square of the pressure (P2)

I = P2 / v , W/m2
Where: = density of air, kg/m3 v = velocity of sound in air, m/s v = characteristic impedance of air to sound = 410 rayls in air For dry air @ 170C : = 1.2kg/m3 and v = 341.7 m/s thus: v = 410 rayls

Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level

Sound intensity level, SIL the ten times logarithm of the ratio of existing intensity to the threshold intensity

SIL = 10 log I/Io

where: Io=threshold intensity = 10-12

In relation to pressure:
SIL = 20 log P/Po Where: Po = 2x10-5 N/m2

Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level

Total Intensity
IT

= I1 + I 2 + I3 + + I N

Sound intensity from

A point source (isotropic) in free space

I = W / 4 r2 I = W / 2 r2

A source at ground level

Problem

The RMS pressure of a sound is 200N/m2. What is the sound pressure level?

Problem

What is the sound pressure level in dB of a sound whose intensity is 0.01W/m2?

Problem

What is the increase in sound pressure level in dB if the intensity is doubled?

Problem

What is the increase in sound pressure level in dB if the pressure is doubled?

Problem

What is the intensity of a sound whose RMS pressure is 200N/m2?

Problem

If three identical sounds are added what is the increase in level in dB?

Problem

Two cars are producing individual sound pressure levels of 77dB and 80dB measured at the pavement. What is the resultant sound pressure level when they pass each other?

Problem

In a certain factory space the noise level with all the machines running is 101dB. One machine alone produces a level of 99dB. What would the level be in the factor with all except this machine running?

Sound power or Sound power level

Sound Power, W - the total sound energy radiated per unit of a source Sound Power Level, PWL equal t ot10 times the logarithm of the sound power of the source to the reference sound power (10-12W)

PWL = 10 log W / Wo PWL = 10 log W + 120

The relation of SPL and PWL

For sound produced in free space by an isotropic source

SPL = PWL 20 log r- 11 SPL = PWL 20 log r - 8

For a sound produced at ground level

Problem

Determine the sound power level of 0.001W.

Problem

Calculate the intensity and SPL of a sound at a distance of 10m from a uniformly radiating source of 1W power.

Problem

A compressor with a sound power level of 104dB is radiating uniformly over a flat non-absorbent surface. Calculate the sound level at a distance of 10m.

ROOM ACOUSTICS

Room Acoustics is concerned with the behavior of sound within an enclosed space with a view to obtaining the optimum acoustic effect on the occupants

Requirements for good room acoustics

An adequate amount of sound much reach all parts of the room. Even distribution of sound should be achieved throughout the room, irrespective of distance from the source

Requirements for good room acoustics

Other noise which might tend to mask the required sound must be reduced to an acceptable level in all parts of the room. The rate of decay of sound within the room (reverberation time) should be the optimum for the required use of the room. Acoustical defects to be avoided include:

Long delayed echoes Flutter echoes Sound shadows Distortion Sound concentration

Optimum reverberation @ 500 to 1kHz

Recording and broadcast studios 0.45 to 0.55 Elementary classrooms 0.6 to 0.8 Playhouses, intimate drama production 0.9 to 1.1 Lecture and conference rooms 0.9 to 1.1 Cinema 0.8 to 1.2 Small theaters 1.2 to 1.4 High school auditoriums 1.5 to 1.6 General purpose auditoriums 1.5 to 1.6 Churches 1.4 to 3.4

Reverberation
Reverberation persistence of sound in an enclosure due to repeated reflections at the boundaries Reverberation time (RT) time it takes for sound to decay by 60dB or onemillionth of its initial value

Equations for reverberation time

1. Stephen and Bate equation use for computing the ideal reverberation time in second
t60

= r (0.12 3V + 0.1070) seconds where: V = room volume (m3) r = 4 for speech = 5 for orchestra = 6 for choir

Optimum volume per person for various types of hall

Types of Hall Concert Halls Italian-type opera houses Optimum volume/person (m3) 7.1 4.2 5.1

Churches
Cinemas Rooms for speech

7.1 9.9
3.1 2.8

Problem
Find the reverberation time for a concert hall used mainly for orchestral music with a capacity of 450 people. Suggest the optimum volume required of the above problem

Equations for reverberation time

2. Sabine Equation governing the decay of uniformly diffuse sound in a live room for an average absorption less than or equal to 0.2
For metric system: t60 = 0.0161V / a Where: V = room volume, m3 a = total absorption units,m2 For metric system: t60 = 0.049V / a Where: V = room volume, ft3 a = total absorption units,ft2

Absorption coefficient and Absorption

Coefficient of absorption () - ratio of the absorbed sound intensity to the incident sound intensity

= Ia / Ii where: Ia = Ii Ir Ir = reflected sound intensity = 1 for perfect absorbent material = 1 + 2 + 3 + + n

Average absorption coefficient,

Total absorption (a)

a = A where: A = surface area of the absorbent structure, m2 or ft2

Problem

Find the optimum reverberation time at 500Hz of a living room 20ft long, 13ft wide, and 8ft high, with a plaster ceiling (1=0.02), a carpeted floor (2 = 0.3), a wood-paneled side wall (3=0.12), an opposite glass wall (4=0.03), an end wall of medium drapery (5 = 0.4) and a brick fireplace(6=0.02) for the other end wall. With no additional furnishing or occupants

Equations for reverberation time

3. Norris- Eyrings formula for actual reverberation time with average absorption coefficient greater than 0.2
For metric system: t60 = 0.0161V / -S ln (1- ) For metric system: t60 = 0.049V / -S ln (1- )

Measurement of Reverberation time

Using a beat frequency oscillator or white noise generator as a sound source Using a pistol as a sound source

Methods of measuring absorption coefficient

Reverberation Chamber Method Impedance Tube Method

Types of absorbents
Porous materials Membrane or panel absorbers Helmholtz or cavity or volume resonators