Research Process in Social Science

Dr.R.VASANTHAGOPAL
Associate Professor P.G &Research Dept. of Commerce The Cochin College Kochi-682 002 vasanthagopalr@yahoo.com

Research Vs Research Methodology

A search for facts- answer to questions and

solutions to problems Organized enquiry- explanation to unexplained phenomenon through scientific rather than arbitrary(unscientific) method Thus, research is an organised set of activities to find practical solution for a realistic problem supported by data. Research methodology is a system of models, procedures and techniques used to find the results of a research problem.
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010

Social Science Research

Sciences

are-Natural (Physical) sciences and Social sciences. Social sciences deal with human life, human behaviour, social groups and social institutions. As it deals human nature and mans environment it is more difficult to comprehend than the physical phenomena. It seeks to find solution to unsolved social phenomena to clarify the doubtful, and correct the misconceived facts of social life(Pauline V Young).

Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Requisites for Social Science Research

Existence of a realistic problem Systematic analysis of the problem with data Define terms, concepts, statistical tools unequivocally Collection of data relevant to the problem under study Classification of data Identify and state variables Use appropriate statistical procedure in summarizing the

data Set hypothesis for the population and also test the hypothesis using appropriate tool Conclusion and generalization based on findings Complete elimination of personal equation Complete and careful reporting of the research process
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010

Process in Social Science Research

Problem definition Objectives of research Research design Data collection Data analysis and interpretation

Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Problem Definition
Selection of a problem is the first step in research Problem means a question/issue to be examined The problem must be identified and defined

without ambiguity. One with a critical, curious and imaginative mind and is sensitive to practical problems could easily identify problems Ill-defined problems may end up with misleading conclusions

Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Objectives of Research
Objectives set should be able to give solution to the

research problem Objectives may be-Quantitative and Qualitative Quantitative objective aims to maximize the performance of the aspect under study. Qualitative objective aims to test the significance of hypotheses. set objectives based on:
Research questions- are the problems which are not resolved till data Hypothesis- assumption about a population of the study Boundary of the study- define the boundary clearly. Size, complexities and constraints are the important considerations.

Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Research Design
A logical plan prepared for directing a research study. It provides a complete guidelines for data collection. Essence of a design

Selection of a research approach-

requirements decide the type of study Design of sampling plan- may be probability and nonprobability sampling

Based

on

the

Design of experiment- Identify variables and assess their

impact

Design of questionnaire- It is necessary in case of empirical

studies

The success of a survey based research depends on the strength of the questionnaire.
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Data Collection
Social scientists make use of both primary and

secondary data Without data no specific inferences can be drawn on the problem under study. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study The researcher should evaluate the quality(reliability, accuracy and completeness) of secondary data before its use. The methods of collecting primary data depend on population, time, cost, precision required, etc.
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Data Analysis
The process of evaluating data using analytical

and logical reasoning to examine each component of the data provided to form some sort of finding or conclusion. Data analysis is just one of the many steps that must be completed when conducting a research study. The computer will assist in the summarization of data, but statistical data analysis focuses on the interpretation of the output to make inferences and predictions.
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Why Data Analysis?

Data (crude information)-Information-Facts (are what the data reveals)-Knowledge Decisions under uncertainty Increase the level of improvements in decisionmaking Place knowledge on a systematic evidence base Forecast and predict future aspects of a business operation

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Types of Data Analysis-1

Secondary Data Analysis Primary (Survey) Data Analysis
Data source for a research study may be of twoSecondary and Primary

Using secondary data in a research study enables to give a strong theoretical base for the problem under study. Descriptive statistics viz. averages, percentages, measures of dispersion are largely used for analysing the secondary data cont

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Types of Data Analysis-2

Analyzing survey results require strict attention to

detail and, in some cases, knowledge of statistics and computer software packages. How you conduct these steps will depend on the scope of your study, your own capabilities, and the audience to whom you wish to direct the work. Before actually beginning the survey the researcher should know how they want to analyze the data. Be sure to pick your program before you design your survey. some programs require the data to be laid out in different ways. Conti..
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Types of Data Analysis-3

After the survey is conducted and the data

collected, the results must be assembled in some useable format that allows comparison within the survey group, between groups, or both. The results could be analyzed in a number of ways. It all dependence on the nature of the data, size of the sample, scale, amount of precision required etc.

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17/12/2010

Concepts in Data Analysis

Population

All Units/objects/individuals under study(Denoted by N) Sample A Part of a population (Denoted by n) Variable Characteristics of an individual or object Dependent, independent and extraneous Parameter Characteristics of the population Statistic Characteristic of the sample
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Data Analysis-Process-1
(In Empirical Research)
Defining the problem- It is extremely difficult to gather

data without a clear definition of the problem Population Sample Collection of data- Designing ways to collect data is an important job in statistical data analysis Data Entry (Either in SPSS/STATA/EXEL) Data Analysis(Either in SPSS or STATA-Statistical

software packages)

cont
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010

Data Analysis-Process-2
(In Empirical Research)
There

are two methods for analyzing data -1.Exploratory methods and 2.Confirmatory methods Exploratory methods use simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to summarize data. Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in to answer specific questions. It provides a mechanism for measuring, expressing, and analyzing the uncertainties associated with future events. The majority of the topics of research fall under this method. Cont
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010

Data Analysis-Process-3
(In Empirical Research)
Exploratory and Confirmatory methods include: 1.Descriptive analysis 2.Univeriate analysis 3.Bivariate analysis 4.Multivariate analysis Interpretation Reporting the results- The results may be reported in the form of a table, a graph or a set of percentages.

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data

Qualitative(Categorical) Data
Make a frequency

Quantitative Data
Obtain the modified

table Bar diagram/Pie diagram(for graphical representation)

range item divide in to several class Make a frequency table Histogram/pie diagram

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Statistical Scales
Social science research deal with various

social/psychological variables Their measurement is one of the vital stages in the research process Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

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17/12/2010

Nominal Scale
(Lowest level of measurement) Characteristics No order, distance or arithmetic origin(unique origin indicated by zero) Measurement Principle People/objects with the same scale value Eg.sex,religion.caste,etc (Assign numerals say
I,2,3..These are just labels and have no quantitative value)

Permissible Arithmetic operations

Counting Appropriate statistics Mode, Chi square

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Ordinal Scale
Characteristics

Order, but no distance or arithmetic origin

Measurement Principle

People/objects are ordered by rank from least to most on a continuum (either in ascending/descending orders)
Permissible Arithmetic operations

Greater than/less than operations

Appropriate statistics

Median, Inter Quartile range, Weighted mean, Rank correlation

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Interval scale
Characteristics

Both order and distance, but no arithmetic origin

Measurement Principle

Objects with Intervals value

Eg.Temparature,Time Permissible Arithmetic operations

Addition/substraction of scale values

Appropriate statistics

Mean, SD, t-test, f-test, ANOVA,MANOVA, Factor Analysis, Regression ,Multiple Correlation
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010

Ratio Scale
(Highest level of measurement)
Characteristics

Order, distance and arithmetic origin Measurement Principle There is a rationale(natural)zero point for the scale Eg.weight,height,distance,money value,rate of return Permissible Arithmetic operations Addition,substraction,multiplication and division of scale values Appropriate statistics All techniques usable at nominal, ordinal and interval level, GM,HM,Co-efficient of variation.
(CV=SD/Mean)

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Types Statistical Analysis

Descriptive Analysis

Describes the nature of an object/phenomenon under study viz. profile of the sample individual/organisation,workgroups etc. This analysis may describe data on one variable, two variables and more than two variables(Accordingly called univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis)
Inferential Analysis Drawing inferences and conclusions from the findings of a research study.
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Hypothesis Testing-1
Hypothesis is an assumption about a population. There are two types of hypothesis-Null

hypothesis(Ho) and Alternate hypothesis(H1). Null hypothesis is a statement of no change or no difference or no relationship. It is a preferred assumption. The hypothesis representing the opposite of the null hypothesis is alternate hypothesis. Both the null and alternate(research) hypotheses are expressed in terms of the population parameters, not in terms of the sample statistics.
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Hypothesis Testing-2
It is the null hypothesis that is tested directly; the

research hypothesis is supported when the null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis testing means subjecting a hypothesis to an appropriate empirical scrutiny and statistical test to determine its validity. The hypothesis formulated should be testable i.e. amenable for empirical investigation.

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Hypothesis Testing-Steps
Identify Ho and H1 Select the test statistic and determine its

value(observed value) from the sample data Compare the observed value and the critical value(table value) Make a decision
If the observed value> the critical value=Significant (Reject Ho) If the observed value< the critical value=Not

significant

(Accept the Ho)

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010

Significance Level and Sampling Error

Significance level is the probability with which the

Ho is rejected due to sampling error, though Ho is true. Sampling error may be of two Type-1 error(Alpha)=Probability of rejecting Ho when it is true Type-2 error(Beta)=Probability of accepting Ho when it is false

Decision Reject Ho Accept Ho

Ho True Type I error No error

Ho False No error Type II error

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Statistical Tests and Applications

No.of sample Scale t-test F test Chi square ANOVA Hypothesis about frequency 1,2 or more Nominal distribution One large Interval/Ratio sample(n>30;n is known One sample(small Hypothesis about mean sample) Interval/Ratio Two(large sample) Interval/Ratio Two(small sample) Three or more Interval/Ratio Interval/Ratio

Hypothesis about proportionOne sample(large) One sample(small) Two sample(large) Two sample(small)

Interval/Ratio Interval/Ratio Interval/Ratio Interval/Ratio

Hypothesis about variation Two or more sample

Interval/Ratio

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Tests of Significance-1
Parametric and non-parametric Parametric tests
More power full but depend on the parameters/characteristics of

the population Values must be independent(selection one item must not depend upon other item) Distribution must be normal The population should have equal variances Scale: Interval Important Tests: t-test, z-test(testing the mean, median, mode, correlation etc.) and F-test

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Tests of Significance-2
Non-parametric tests Are population free tests as they are not based on parameters/characteristics of the population Values must be dependent(selection one item must depend upon other item) Distribution may not be normal The population should not have equal variances Scale: Ordinal/nominal Important Tests: chi-square test, median test, sign test, KS(Kolmogorow Smirnov) test.

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Chi-square Test-Illustration
Income Income Low Low High Total 30 10 40 Education High 12 28 40 Total Low 42 38 80 High Total 30(21)* 10(19) 40 12(21) 28(19) 40 42 38 80 Low Education High Total

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Meaning and Interpretation of p-value

A p-value is a measure of how much evidence you

have against the null hypothesis. The smaller the p-value, the more evidence you have. If the p-value is less than some threshold (usually . 05) then reject the null hypothesis.
P-value p<0.01 p<0.05 P<.10 0.01<p Interpretation Very strong evidence against Ho Moderate evidence against Ho Suggestive evidence against Ho Little or no real evidence against Ho Sig/Not sig. Significant Significant Decision Reject Ho Reject Ho

Not significant Accept Ho Not significant Accept Ho

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

17/12/2010

Reference
1.

Alan Agresti and Barbara Finley(1997), Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences ,Prentice-Hall, New Delhi. Krishnaswami,O.RandM.Ranganathan(2009),Method ology of Research in social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi. Paneerselvam,R(2005),ResearchMethodology,Prenti ce-Hall of India, New Delhi.

2.

3.

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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2

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Thank you
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Dr.R.Vasanthagopal,The Cochin College, Kochi-2 17/12/2010