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VD
= Re
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
10
Example 8.1
Consider a water flow in a pipe having a diameter of D = 20 mm which is intended to fill a
0.35 liter container. Calculate:
(a) the minimum time required if the flow is laminar,
(b) the maximum time required if the flow is turbulent.
Use density = 998 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity = 1.12103 kg/ms.
Solution:
(a) For laminar flow, use Re =VD/ = 2100:
Hence, the minimum time t is
(b) For turbulent flow, use Re = VD/ = 4000:
Hence, the minimum time t is
( )
( )( )
s m
D
V 118 . 0
020 . 0 998
10 12 . 1 2100 2100
3
=
= =
( )
( ) ( )
s
V D
V
Q
V
t
45 . 9
118 . 0 02 . 0
10 35 . 0 4
4
2
3
2
=
=
= =
t
t
( )
( )( )
s m
D
V 224 . 0
020 . 0 998
10 12 . 1 4000 4000
3
=
= =
( )
( ) ( )
s
V D
V
Q
V
t
96 . 4
224 . 0 02 . 0
10 35 . 0 4
4
2
3
2
=
=
= =
t
t
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
11
8.1 Flow Characteristics in Pipes
In many cases of pipe flows, it may begin from a tank as shown in
Fig. 8.2.
As described in Chapter 5 of Unit 2, the common velocity profile for
laminar pipe flow is parabolic. However, at a position in the pipe
where the fluid just exits from the reservoir, the velocity profile is
almost uniform.
This uniform flow can also be seen as a representation of inviscid flow
since the fluid molecules has no relative motion from one to another.
The transition from the initially uniform flow and a fully developed
parabolic occurred in the entrance region. In this region, the flow is
formed by a mixture between the following two regions:
1. Inviscid core, where the velocity profile is uniform and
the viscous effect is negligible,
2. Boundary layer, where it allows velocity variation from pipe walls
with no-slip condition to the core and the viscous effect is
dominant.
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
12
8.1 Flow Characteristics in Pipes
Figure 8.2 Velocity Profiles at the
Entrance and Fully
Developed Regions
p
Entrance flow
pressure loss
Entrance
region flow
Fully
developed flow
e
x
Ap
Ap
cp
cx
= = constant
Figure 8.3 Pressure
Distribution in a
Horizontal Pipe
D
Inviscid core
Entrance
region flow
Boundary layer
Fully
developed flow
Fully developed
flow
Developing
flow
e
r
x
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
13
8.1 Flow Characteristics in Pipes
The entrance region can be represented by entrance length e, which can
be empirically determined by the following formulae for both regimes:
Laminar:
Turbulent:
Due to different boundary layer thickness in the inviscid core, the pressure
distribution behaves non-linearly in this region and the pressure slope is not
constant as shown in Fig. 8.3. However, after the flow is fully developed,
the slope becomes constant and the pressure drop Ap is directly caused
only by viscous effect.
By projecting the graph back towards the tank, we can estimate the
pressure drop due to entrance flow. Hence, by using the Bernoulli
equation with losses, the pressure value at all position along the same pipe
can be calculated.
Re 06 . 0 =
D
e
6
1
(Re) 4 . 4 =
D
e
=
2 1
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
15
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Head loss due to friction h
f
,
(8.11)
f is known as the Darcy friction factor. For laminar flow, it is
defined as
(8.12)
g
V
D
f h
f
2
2
=
2
8
Re
64
V
f
w
t
= =
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
16
In turbulent pipe flow, we can anticipate that the velocity profile and the
shear stress will be somewhat similar to the second graph of Fig. 8.7. At
any point in vicinity of the wall the velocity is still small and the flow is
locally laminar.
However, towards the centreline, the flow becomes turbulent but stable.
If we relate this pattern with the velocity gradient , we will have a non-
linear distribution of shear stress which is maximum at the wall but
reduces significantly towards the centreline.
Figure 8.7 Turbulent Velocity Profile and Shear Stress Distribution
Pipe wall
Pipe centreline
0
R
r
0
0
R
r
0
w
u
max
u ( r )
Outer
layer
Overlap
layer
Viscous sublayer
turbulent t
laminar
t
t
t
( r ) t
8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
17
8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
From Fig. 8.7, we can see that the velocity gradient cu/cr near the
wall is greater compared to the gradient for laminar flow, thus the
wall shear stress t
w
is very high but still finite.
However, near the pipe centreline, the gradient becomes smaller
which forms a nearly inviscid profile. Hence, we can deduce that
a highly turbulent flow can be approximated by an inviscid flow
with a finite friction factor.
Therefore, we can divide a general turbulent flow into three
regions:
1. Viscous sub-layer, the flow is locally laminar and the laminar
shear stress is dominant,
2. Outer layer, the flow is locally turbulent and the turbulent shear
stress is dominant,
3. Overlap layer, transition between the above two layers..
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
18
8.4 Friction Loss
For laminar flow in rough pipes, the friction factor f is dominantly caused
by viscous friction due to molecular interaction. Hence, we can use
Eq. (8.12) for all occasions involving laminar flow.
However, for turbulent flow, the profile at the core of the pipe is close to
inviscid profile and the friction factor f is much due to the existence of
viscous sublayer near the wall.
Thus, if the wall surface is rougher, the resulting viscous sublayer is
thicker. The roughness of a pipe is measured in length which is defined
as equivalent roughness c. The values of c for typical pipes are listed in
Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Equivalent Roughness for Typical New Pipes
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
19
8.4 Friction Loss
For turbulent flow, the friction factor f can be obtained by using the
graphical representation of the Colebrook formula which is the Moody
chart as shown in Figure 8.11
Table 8.11: The moody chart
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
20
8.4 Friction Loss
In some texts, the same experimental data are refitted to a simpler form of
correlation which can be solved directly with 2% error. This correlation is
known as the Haaland formula which takes the following form:
After knowing the friction factor f for the pipe, we can calculate the major
head loss due to friction for a fluid flowing in the pipe. If fluid properties,
and , pipe length and relative roughness of the pipe wall c are all
known, provided that other variables are also known, the problem can be
one of the following types:
1. Determine pressure loss Ap or friction head loss h
f
,
2. Determine volumetric flow-rate Q or average velocity V,
3. Determine pipe diameter D.
After knowing f, then h
f
can be calculated via Eq. (8.11),
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
Re
9 . 6
7 . 3
/
log 8 . 1
1
11 . 1
D
f
c
g
V
D
f h
f
2
2
=
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
21
8.5 Minor Losses
Apart from major loss due to friction, there are also other forms of
losses which are caused by changes in internal pipe geometries and
by fitted components. These types of losses are referred to as
minor losses. There are four types of minor losses:
1. Sudden or gradual flow expansion and flow contraction,
2. Entrance and exit flows to and from reservoirs or tanks,
3. Bends, elbows, junctions and other fittings,
4. Valves, including those completely opened or partially closed.
Minor loss is denoted by h
m
and is expressed as proportional to the
velocity head, i.e.
where K is the loss coefficient for each case. This coefficient K can either
be derived analytically or taken from experimental or commercial data.
g
V
K h
m
2
2
=
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
22
8.5 Minor Losses
If we have a number of fittings along a pipe, the total head loss is
be the summation of friction head loss, or major loss, with all
minor losses, i.e.
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + = A
K
d
f
g
V
h h h
m f total
2
2
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
23
Example 8.5
Water flows from the ground floor to the second level in a three-storey
building through a 20 mm diameter pipe (drawn-tubing, c = 0.0015 mm) at
a rate of 0.75 liter/s. The layout of the whole system is illustrated in
Figure below. The water flows out from the system through a faucet with
an opening of diameter 12.5 mm. Calculate the pressure at point (1).
Threaded elbows 90
K = 1.5
Globe valve
open, K = 10
Faucet
K = 2
Q
1.75 m
5.25 m
3.5 m
3.5 m
3.5 m 3.5 m
(1)
(2)
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
24
Example 8.5
Solution:
From the modified Bernoulli equation, we can write
In this problem, p
2
= 0, z
1
= 0. Thus,
The velocities in the pipe and out from the faucet are respectively
The Reynolds number of the flow is
L
gh gz V p gz V p + + + = + +
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
( ) ( )
m
h h g gz V V p + + + =
1 2
2
1
2
2 1
2
1
( )
( )
( )
( )
s m
D
Q
A
Q
V
s m
D
Q
A
Q
V
631 . 6
012 . 0
10 75 . 0 4 4
387 . 2
020 . 0
10 75 . 0 4 4
2
3
2
2 2
2
2
3
2
1 1
1
=
= = =
=
= = =
t t
t t
546 , 42
10 12 . 1
) 020 . 0 )( 387 . 2 )( 998 (
Re
3
=
= =
Vd
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
25
Example 8.5
Solution:
The roughness c/d = 0.0015/20 = 0.000075. From the Moody chart, ] ~ 0.022
(or,0.02191 via the Colebrook formula). The total length of the pipe is
Hence, the friction head loss is
The total minor loss is
Therefore, the pressure at (1) is
m 21 75 . 1 ) 5 . 3 ( 4 25 . 5 = + + =
m 71 . 6
) 81 . 9 ( 2
387 . 2
02 . 0
21
) 022 . 0 (
2
2 2
1
= = =
g
V
d
f h
f
| |
m
m
94 . 11 23 . 5 71 . 6
23 . 5
) 81 . 9 ( 2
387 . 2
2 10 ) 5 . 1 ( 4
2
2 2
1
= + = + =
= + + = =
A
m f
m
h h h
g
V
K h
et
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )
Pa 205
23 . 5 71 . 6 81 . 9 998
5 . 3 5 . 3 81 . 9 998 387 . 2 631 . 6 998
2
1
2
1
2 2
1 2
2
1
2
2 1
k
h h g gz V V p
m
=
+ +
+ + =
+ + + =
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
26
Summary
This chapter has summarized on the aspect below:
You should be able to understand the concept of
viscous flow in pipes and to be able to differentiate
a laminar flow against a turbulent flow.
In addition, you should also be able to calculate
major and minor losses for both types of flow in
order to calculate the overall pressure or head loss
in a pipe system.
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc Prof Dr Shahrir Abdullah
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
27
Thank You