(^^,shar_

(^^,shar_

(^^,shar_

Darwin believed that the human race had gradually evolved from lower orders of life as a result of progressive adaptation to the environment through the survival of biological forms best adapted to a competitive struggle.
(^^,shar_ 4

The idea that man descended from apelike creatures

shocked most people.

However, eventually evolutionist proved that man and

living simians (higher level animals) have many traits in common which provided rational evidence of their common ancestry, but it does not mean that man and apes have one common ancestor.

(^^,shar_

 Darwin drew his evidence from three main categories: a) similarities between humans and other primates, b) similarities in embryological development, and c) vestigial organs (part of the animal which still develop to some degree but seemingly have no purpose). With this three pronged attack Darwin provided very strong

evidence for mans common ancestry with the living apes, and that all human populations were more closely related to each other than to any living primate; they were the same species.
The most common evidence of evolution is the discovery of

actual remains of the ancestors of predicted and then found java man, Pithecanthropus Erectus, which is now called Homo Erectus.
(^^,shar_ 6

- Eanthropus dawsoni or "dawn man."

Discovered in 1912 by Charles Dawson, a medical doctor and amateur paleontologist. Dawson found a mandible and a small piece of a skull in a gravel pit near Piltdown England. The jawbone was ape-like but the teeth had human characteristics. The skull piece was very human-like. These two specimens were combined to form dawn man, which was supposedly 500,000 years old. However, the whole thing turned out to be an elaborate hoax. The skull was indeed human (about 500 years old) but the jaw was that of a modern ape whose teeth had been filed to look like human wear. (^^,shar_ 7

(^^,shar_

- Hesperopithecus haroldcookii was discovered in 1922 in the Pliocene deposits of Nebraska by Mr. Cook and made famous by Henry Osborn of the American Museum of Natural History
(^^,shar_ 9

Ramapithecus lufengensis -Ramapithecus, thought to have

lived between 12 and 14 million years ago, was first discovered in southwest Kenya by Louis Leakey in 1932. At that time, all that was found were a few teeth and some fragments of the upper jaw or maxilla. Leakey assembled these fragments so that they fortuitously resembled the parabolically arched shape of a human jaw (apes have a more U-shaped form).
(^^,shar_ 10

Because of this human-like maxillary shape and what were thought to be "humanlike" teeth characteristics, this creature was long believed to be the first branch from a line of apes that eventually evolved into modern humans.
(^^,shar_ 11

(^^,shar_

12

The earliest and most primitive mammals

(^^,shar_

13

Australopithecus africanus -- The word "Australopithecus" means

"southern ape." This name is used because the first fossils were found in South Africa. Dr. Raymond Dart, professor of anatomy at Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg, was the first to study these fossils. In 1924 at Taung in South Africa, Dart discovered a fossil skull consisting of a full face, teeth and jaws, and an endocranial cast of the brain. The brain size was 410cc. Its age is currently felt to be around two to three million years old. Dart was convinced that some teeth were man-like and thus concluded a transition between apes and man.
(^^,shar_ 14

(^^,shar_

15

Australopithecus afarensis "LUCY" -- In 1974, Donald

Johanson discovered a half complete skeleton (Locality A.L. 288; Ethiopia's Awash Valley) that he named after the Beetle's song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" (LSD). The specimen was only 1.1 meters tall, estimated to weigh 29 kilograms and look somewhat like a common chimpanzee. A year later, thirteen similar skeletons were found.
(^^,shar_ 16

(^^,shar_

17

Homo habilis -- Homo habilis was discovered in 1959 by Mary

Leakey and dated at about 1.8 million years old. What she found were some badly fragmented pieces of skull. Her husband, Louis Leakey, was not impressed at first. He commented that it was nothing more than a "damned Australopithecine". However, he quickly changed his mind when what appeared to be stone tools were found near the site of Homo habilis. The bones of many of these animals revealed that they had been butchered and deliberately broken for their marrow. Leakey decided, on the basis of this evidence, that his fossil had been a toolmaker and butcher and thus called

him Homo habilis or "handy man."

(^^,shar_ 18

Most other investigators, however, were not comfortable with such an extremely primitive beast being a toolmaker. Like Australopithecus robustus, Leakey's "Homo habilis" had huge and very unhuman molars, a very small brain, and a large bony sagital crest on the top of its skull. Later, Leaky thought better of the whole idea of his "Homo habilis" as a tool maker and demoted him to the classification of

Zinjanthropus boisei, which means East African man.

(^^,shar_ 19

The skull of Zinj is especially robust, sometimes called, "hyper-robust". Notice, in the reconstruction of Zinj, the very wide zygomatic arches, which project forward in front of the nasal opening to form a dish-shaped face (like many apes today).

These outward flaring arches provided space for huge temporalis muscles that are used for chewing. In other words, Zinj had a very powerful bite.
Zinj's teeth are also massive, sometimes more than 4-times the size of modern human teeth. 20

(^^,shar_

(^^,shar_

21

(^^,shar_

22

Turkana Boy -- In July 1984, a nearly complete fossilized skeleton, of an obviously human 12-year-old boy (some say as young as 9 years old), was discovered at Lake Turkana in Kenya. It is the most complete skeleton to date to be included as a Homo erectus. The boy stood 160cm (5' 3'') tall and had a brain capacity of 880cc. It is estimated that in adulthood, the boy would grow to be 185cm (6' 1'') tall and have a brain capacity of 910cc. The skeleton of this child is like that of a modern human in all respects except for certain details of the skull. He had a low forehead and pronounced brow ridges.
(^^,shar_ 23

(^^,shar_

24

Peking Man: The current story is that the remains of Sinanthropus pekinensis, known as Peking Man and dating back to 400,000 BC, were excavated in 1923 at Zhoukoudianzhen near Peking, China. Peking Man was closely related to Pithecanthropus of Java and "lived during the Old Stone Age." An almost complete skullcap was discovered in 1929 in a filled-in limestone cave near Peking, China (now Beijing). This ape-like skullcap was similar to Java man. Fragments of 14 skulls, 12 lower jaws and 147 teeth were found. After hiring a sculptor to model a woman's face from the made-up skull, the result was named "Nellie." The very "attractive" Nellie has appeared in almost all modern textbooks concerning the evolution of man. (^^,shar_ 25

(^^,shar_

26

(Homo erectus erectus) is the name given to fossils discovered in 1891 at Trinil-Ngawi Regency on the banks of the Solo River in East Java, Indonesia, one of the first known specimens of Homo Erectus.
Its discoverer, Eugene Dubois, gave it the scientific name

, a name derived from Greek and Latin roots meaning

(^^,shar_

27

(^^,shar_

28

Generally known as Homo Sapiens Neanderthaleasis, noticeably square, squat and stocky

(^^,shar_

29

 The skull is lower, broader, and elongated in

contrast to the higher doming of a modern skull. The average brain size (cranial capacity) is larger than the average modern human by almost 200 cubic centimeters. The forehead is low, with heavy brow ridges curving over each eye. There is a slight projection at the rear of the skull (occipital bun). The cranial wall is thick compared to modern humans. The facial architecture is heavy, with the midface and the upper jaw projecting forward (prognathism). The nose is prominent and broad. The frontal sinuses are expanded. The lower jaw is large and lacks a definite chin. The body bones are heavy and thick and the long bones somewhat curved.
(^^,shar_

30

Characterized by low forehead, large bony ridges above the eyes, a retreating chin but a jutting forward of the mouth region, and a long low brain case.

(^^,shar_

31

Kingdom: ANIMALIA Phylum: VERTEBRAE Class: MAMMALIA Infraclass: EUTHERIA Order: PRIMATES Suborder: ANTHROPOIDEA Superfamily: HOMINOIDEA Family: HOMINIDAE Genus: HOMO Species: SAPIENS
(^^,shar_ 32

As ANIMALS, man are complex aggregates of cells, differentiated from plants and from single-celled creatures. As CHORDATES, man have dorsal nerve cord. As VERTEBRATES, this cord is encased in a hard, body spine.

As MAMMALS, men are warm-blooded, with hair; and females nourish their young with milk.
(^^,shar_ 33

As EUTHERIANS, or fully placental mammals, men bring forth young alive and fully formed, but in totally defenseless condition. As PRIMATES, men enjoy prehensile hand with opposable thumbs and have keen stereoscopic vision which they rely more on hearing and smelling. As ANTHROPOIDS, men are erect; normally move bipedal. Legs are longer than arms; feet adapted to walking; faces almost vertical, little projections of jaws.
(^^,shar_ 34

(^^,shar_

35

1. Man walks erect on two feet. Other animals walk on four feet and their bodies are horizontal to the ground. 2. Man has two free hands used for handling things. Animals except apes have no free hands. 3. Man has a more complex brain than animals.
(^^,shar_ 36

1. Man is rational. He has the power of reasoning. Using

this, he knows what is right and what is wrong. Animals are not rational.
2. Man has complex techniques of producing, procuring,

and preparing and cooking food. Animals just roam around and procure their food with their mouths or claws and eat their food raw.
3. Man

has social, educational, economic, and governmental organizations. Animals do not have these.
(^^,shar_ 37

4. Man has a system of religious beliefs and practices.

Animals do not have these.

5. Man communicates by means of complex language,

oral and/or written. Animals communicate by means of simple sounds and gestures. They have no writing.
6. Man makes tools, weapons, and other gadgets and

artifacts, constructs strong and comfortable shelters, and has fast means of land, sea, and air transportation and communication. Animals do not have all of these.
(^^,shar_ 38

(^^,shar_

39

local geographic or global human population distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically transmitted physical characteristics.

A group of people united or classified together on the basis

of common history, nationality, or geographic distribution

A genealogical line; a lineage. Humans considered as a group.
(^^,shar_ 40

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach divided the human species into five races in 1779, later founded on crania research (description of human skulls), and called them (1793/1795):
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

the Caucasian race or white race the Mongolian or yellow race the Malayan or brown race the Ethiopian/Negroid or black race the American or red race.
(^^,shar_ 41

The term Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, or Europoid) has been used to denote the general physical type of some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Western Asia (the Middle East), Central Asia and South Asia.
Historically, the term has been used to describe the entire population of these regions, without regard necessarily to skin tone.
(^^,shar_ 42

(^^,shar_

43

 Skin varying from a pure white to a rich

brown. Hair all shades, from blonde to black. Beard full, soft and flowing. Caucasian noses extend slightly upward. Nose high and thin. Lips medium. Caucasian cheekbones protrude upward. Caucasian brow bones tend to be deeper, with eyes more sunken. Caucasian eyes are rounder. Caucasian foreheads are usually slightly more narrow. Caucasian faces tend to have longer and sharper chin lines. (^^,shar_

44

The Mongolian Race or Mongoloid is a term sometimes

used by forensic anthropologists and physical anthropologists to refer to populations that share certain traits such as epicanthic fold and shovel-shaped incisors and other physical traits common in East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas and the Arctic.
The word is formed by the base word "Mongol" and the

suffix "-oid" which means "resembling".

It was introduced by early Racial science to primarily

described various central and east Asian populations, one of the proposed three major races of human kind.
(^^,shar_ 45

They are related to the American Indians who are believed to have come to America by way of the Bering Strait 20,000 years ago. They are usually small, slender, and remarkable for their agility and skillful manipulation; excelling in taste and execution, rather than invention. Skull small and narrow, with rather flat sides, forehead low and retreating, skin a yellowish tawny, eyes narrow and almond-shaped, hair long, black, and straight, beard very scanty.

(^^,shar_

46

(^^,shar_

47

The Malay race, a concept that was proposed by German

scientist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, refers to those of brown colored people who inhabit the Malay Peninsula and portions of neighboring islands of the Southeast Asia, including the coast of Borneo, Philippines, Sumatra and other smaller islands within these areas. American anthropologists H. Otley Beyer proposed that Filipinos were Malay migrants from Malaysia and Indonesia. It is classified as the brown race. The term Malay race was commonly used in the late 19th century and early 20th century to describe the Austronesian peoples. (^^,shar_ 48

Blumenbach writes: Malay variety. Tawny-colored; hair black, soft, curly, thick

and plentiful; head moderately narrowed; forehead slightly swelling; nose full, rather wide, as it were diffuse, end thick; mouth large. upper jaw somewhat prominent with the parts of the face when seen in profile,
sufficiently prominent and distinct from each other. This last variety includes the islanders of the Pacific Ocean, together with the inhabitants of the Marianne, the Philippine, the Molucca and the Sunda Islands, and of the Malayan peninsula. I wish to call it the Malay, because the majority of the men of this variety, especially those who inhabit the Indian islands close to the Malacca peninsula, as well as the Sandwich, the Society, and the Friendly Islanders, and also the Malambi of Madagascar down to the inhabitants of Easter Island, use the Malay idiom.
(^^,shar_ 49

(^^,shar_

50

 Negroid is a term used to refer to individuals and

populations that share certain morphological and skeletal traits that are generally associated with Black African ancestry.
The term has both Greek and Latin etymological

roots. Not a derogatory term, it literally translates as "black resemblance" from negro/niger (black), and oeids, equivalent to -o- -o- + -eids having the form of, derivative of edos form.
The earliest recorded use of the term "Negroid" came

in 1859. In modern use, the term is associated with "the division of mankind represented by the indigenous peoples of central and southern Africa"
(^^,shar_ 51

 Their most striking characteristics are the jetty blackness of

skin, black, crisp, curly hair, low forehead, high cheekbones, flat, broad nose, broad and small chin, strong, white teeth. The skull is deficient in all the higher intellectual manifestations.

(^^,shar_

52

This race occupied the whole of the two Americas and the

neighboring islands; although there were manifest differences in the people of the North and those of the South.
The North American Indians are tall and straight,

forehead low and broad, nose aquiline, eyes black and deeply set, full lips, skin a warm, coppery red, hair long, black, and straight. They show rather a lack of disposition than of ability to become proficient in the arts of agriculture and manufacture.
(^^,shar_ 53

(^^,shar_

54

MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE: Write X if the statement is TRUE and O if the statement is FALSE. If the statement is false, underline the word(s) or phrase(s)that made it false. 1. Man thought to have evolved from lower forms of life means that man and apes have one common ancestor. 2. The most common evidence of evolution was the discovery of the Homo erectus erectus. 3. Ramapithecus is the earliest and most primitive mammal. 4. Man belongs to the Order Mammalia. 5. Man is composed of complex cells as differentiated from plants which are unicellular.
(^^,shar_ 55

MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE: Write X if the statement is TRUE and O if the statement is FALSE. If the statement is false, underline the word(s) or phrase(s)that made it false. 6. Man (females) nourishes their young with milk secreted from their breasts. 7. As vertebrates, man has a dorsal nerve cord. 8. Man is a Eutherian, meaning man is a warm-blooded being. 9. Man can use his thumb against each fingers in delicate manipulation.
10. A group of people united together due to common history,

nationality, or geographic distribution is termed as race.

(^^,shar_

56

ESSAY: 1. What are the most significant differences between man and animals? Give all the factors that differentiate man from other forms of animals. 2. Many people are shocked when Darwin introduced his theory of evolution. Why? Briefly explain his theory. 3. Blumenbach provided 5 common geographical races. Give all five races and at least a brief description of each. 4. In your opinion, are all races equal? Why or why not? 5. Is the term negro or niger derogatory?
(^^,shar_ 57