Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Classification of systems:
An open system can exchange matter as well as energy with its surroundings a closed system can exchange energy with its surroundings. No transfer of matter across the boundaries is possible an isolated system can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings
Chapter 2 1
Work is transfer of energy using organized motion (expansion work, electrical work, etc.) Heat is transfer of energy using thermal motion (chaotic, random motion of molecules)
Chapter 2
Heat Transfer
The boundary of a system is diathermic if heat can be transferred between system and surroundings The boundary of a system is adiabatic if heat cannot be transferred.
Adiabatic processes (no heat transfer between system and surroundings) take place in adiabatic systems
A process that releases energy as heat is called exothermic A process that absorbs energy as heat is called endothermic
Chapter 2
Internal Energy
The internal energy, U, is the total energy of a system We cannot give an absolute value of U but we can calculate U for a process U = Uf - Ui
Uf = final value of U Ui = initial value of U
U is a state function (the value of U depends only on the current state of the system) U is an extensive property
Chapter 2
q = heat supplied to or removed from the system (q <0 if heat removed from system) w = work done on or by the system (w <0 if work done by the system)
q and w depend on the process by which the state is changed; they are not state functions U = 0 for an isolated system
the internal energy of an isolated system is constant
Chapter 2
Expansion Work
dw = - pexdv
dw is the expansion work (pressure-volume work) when a system undergoes a change pex is the external pressure dV is the change in volume dw <0 (work is done by the system) when system expands (dV>0)
w = - pexdV
integration from Vi to Vf when volume changes from Vi to Vf
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Reversible Process
A process is regarded as thermodynamically reversible if it can be caused to go in either direction by an infinitesimal change in an external variable such as pressure or temperature Reversible changes occur when a system is in equilibrium with its surroundings For a reversible expansion: p = pex + dp
dp 0 p = pex w = - p dV
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
dwexp = 0 for a process taking place at constant volume dU = dq (if no electrical work) dU = dqv (subscript v indicates process at constant volume) U = qv for process at constant volume
Chapter 2
10
Calorimetric Determination of U
An adiabatic bomb calorimeter (a constant volume calorimeter) is used to determine U The change in temperature, T, of the calorimeter upon reaction is proportional to U or qv qv = C T
C is the heat capacity of the calorimeter C can be determined by electrical calibration
CV = (U/T)V
CV is the heat capacity at constant volume (U/T)V is a partial derivative which shows how U varies with T when the volume is kept constant
CV,m = CV/n
CV,m is the molar heat capacity at constant volume
Chapter 2
12
Change in U with T
dU = CV dT at constant volume
from definition of CV
U = CV T at constant volume
assuming that CV is independent of T
U = qv at constant volume qv = CV T
qv is heat needed to change temperature by T
Chapter 2
13
Enthalpy, H
H = U + pV (Definition of enthalpy)
H is a state function (U, p, and V are all state functions) H is an extensive property
Chapter 2
14
Cp,m = Cp/n
Cp,m is the molar heat capacity at constant pressure
Chapter 2
15
(pV) is small for processes involving condensed phases (solids and liquids) only (pV) is generally significant for processes involving gases
H U for processed involving condensed phases only (pV) = (nRT) for a gas (ideal gas) H = U + (ngasRT) for processes involving gases
Chapter 2
16
H = U + ngasR T
relation between the change in enthalpy and internal energy of a given amount of gas when the gas is heated or cooled
Chapter 2
17
reaction is assumed to take place at constant temperature ngas = (c + d) - (a + b) ngas is the change in number of moles of gas upon reaction
Chapter 2
18
Adiabatic Changes
q = 0 for adiabatic changes
no heat transfer
The following is true for adiabatic compression (reduction of volume of system in an adiabatic change:
work is done on the system the internal energy of the system increases the temperature of the system increases
Chapter 2
19
Thermochemistry
Exothermic reactions release heat
H < 0 for an exothermic reaction taking place at constant pressure
The standard state of a substance at a specified temperature is its pure form at 1 bar pressure The standard enthalpy change, H, is the change in enthalpy for a process in which the initial and final substances are in their standard states
Chapter 2
20
Chapter 2
21
Thermochemical Laws
The enthalpy change for a forward process and its reverse must be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
H(AB) = -H(BA) for the process A B
If the overall reaction is composed of several individual steps, then the enthalpy change of the overall reaction is given by the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps (Hesss Law)
H = H(step1) + H(step2) + .. subH = fusH + vapH
Chapter 2
22
Chapter 2
23
The standard reaction enthalpy is given by the sum of the enthalpies of formation of the products minus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the reactants
aA + bB cC + dD rH = cfH(C) + dfH(D) - (afH(A) + bfH(B))
Chapter 2
24
H(T2) - H(T1) = Cp dT
(Kirchhoffs Law)
Integration from T1 to T2 H(T2) is the enthalpy change of reaction at temp. T2 H(T1) is the enthalpy change of reaction at temp. T1 Cp = Cp(products) - Cp(reactants)
Chapter 2
25