Virtue Ethics

P. R. Bhat

Aim of Life
Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good Happiness is the aim of life.

Meaning of Happiness
Happiness = PLEASURE? pleasure refers to physical enjoyment. Happiness = HONOR?
Happiness = WEALTH? Happiness = CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE?

Types of Good
Relative Good (Instrumental Good) Non-relative Good (Intrinsic good)

Human Good
Happiness is non-relative good. Relative goods are chosen as instruments.

Characteristics of Happiness
Finality & completeness A pure end (not a means, not an end that is also a means). Desired entirely for its own sake & not for the sake of anything else. Sufficient in itself. If you are happy, you dont need any other good. Not one good among others, but an ultimate good above all others.

Argument for Happiness

Everything in nature has a function. Anything which performs well, we call it good. Human beings has a function. The function is of soul (actions). Functioning well is acting with virtue. Acting with virtue requires both physical and mental good.

Nature of Human Soul

non-rational functions + rational functions / \ / \ / \ / \ nutrition appetite intellectual growth desires reproduction Moral Virtues Intellect. Virtues (or vices) (or vices)

Two Types of Virtues

Virtues of character: Cultivated through repeated actions Virtues of Mind: By studying, teaching, learning: formal/informal

Definition of Moral Virtue

Moral virtue is: State of character Concerned with choice It lies in a mean A mean relative to the person The mean established by reason In a manner in which a person with practical wisdom would identify it.

Golden Mean
The doctrine of the mean does not apply to absolute evils (e.g., murder) or to absolute goods (e.g., the pursuit of wisdom). There is no deficiency but only excess with regard to absolute evils. There is no excess but only deficiency with regard to absolute goods.

Main Virtues
Courage (fortitude) -- fear & confidence;
endurance of pain

Temperance -- pursuit of pleasure &

avoidance of pain

Justice -- doing good with regard to others

Courage
The willingness & ability to expose oneself to danger & pain when necessary to the achievement of some real & substantial good The coward shrinks or runs from danger & pain; & the reckless person exposes her/himself to danger & pain even when it is not necessary to the achievement of a real & substantial good.

Temperance
The willingness & ability to forego pleasure when necessary to the achievement of some real & substantial good The mindless hedonist always pursues pleasure & always avoids pain, no matter what; & the insensible person fails to enjoy the pleasures of life at all.

Justice
The Virtue of Doing Good with Regard to Others

A just person is in the habit of obeying the law & of treating people fairly. An unjust person is a law-breaker and/or one who takes unfair advantage of others.

Justice as lawfulness and Justice as fairness.

Justice as Lawfulness
Good laws aim at the common good of society, i.e., the production & preservation of the happiness of the political community.
A system of good laws requires us to act in a morally virtuous way, i.e., to exercise ALL of the moral virtues, and it forbids ALL immoral conduct.

Justice as Fairness
Giving and taking in accordance with
the principle of equality and the principle of assignment by merit

This is the principle of equality or inequality of desert or merit.

Freedom and Choice

Are we free when there is peer/social pressure? Are we free when we are emotional or when we are lazy?

Degree of Freedom
Human Actions (in terms of the source of motion/action)
Voluntary (moved by self) / | \ With deliberation From From and choice anger Passion

External Factors
In addition to living in accordance with excellent reasoning, human beings also need external prosperity : For instance, money, friends, power, social status, etc..

External and Internal Good

External Goods (Circumstantial Security)
Friends Money Status Power

Internal Goods
Psychological (e.g., peace of mind) Bodily (e.g., physical health)