6.

3 Partial Fractions

A function of the type P/Q, where both P and Q
are polynomials, is a rational function.
Definition
3
2
1
is a rational function.
1
x
x x
+
+ +
Example
The degree of the denominator of the above rational function is less than the
degree of the numerator. First we need to rewrite the above rational
function in a simpler form by performing polynomial division.
3
2 2
1 2
1
1 1
x
x
x x x x
+
= +
+ + + +
Rewriting
For integration, it is always necessary to perform polynomial division first, if
possible. To integrate the polynomial part is easy, and one can reduce the
problem of integrating a general rational function to a problem of integrating a
rational function whose denominator has degree greater than that of the
numerator (is called proper rational function). Thus, polynomial division is the
first step when integrating rational functions.
Rational Functions
Partial Fraction Decomposition
The second step is to factor the denominator Q(x) as far as
possible. It can be shown that any polynomial Q can be factored as
a product of linear factors (of the form ax+b) and irreducible
quadratic factors (of the form ax
2
+bx+c, where b
2
-4ac<0). For
instance, if Q(x)=x
4
-16 then Q(x) = (x
2
-4)(x
2
+4)=(x-2)(x+2)(x
2
+4)

The third step is to express the proper rational function as a sum of
partial fractions of the form
A / (ax+b)
i
or (Ax+b) / (ax
2
+bx+c)
j
Example:

The fourth step is to integrate the partial fractions.
2
3 2 2 2
3 3 2 1 1 2
1 1 1 1
x x x
x x x x x x
+ +
= + +
+ + + + + +
Integration Algorithm
Integration of a rational function f = P/Q, where P and Q
are polynomials can be performed as follows.
1. If deg(Q) s deg(P), perform polynomial division and write
P/Q = S + R/Q, where S and R are polynomials with
deg(R) < deg(Q).
Integrate the polynomial S.
2. Factorize the polynomial Q.
3. Perform Partial Fraction Decomposition of R/Q.
4. Integrate the Partial Fraction Decomposition.
Different cases of Partial Fraction
Decomposition
The partial fraction decomposition of a rational function R=P/Q,
with deg(P) < deg(Q), depends on the factors of the denominator Q.
It may have following types of factors:
1. Simple, non-repeated linear factors ax + b.
2. Repeated linear factors of the form (ax + b)
k
, k > 1.
3. Simple, non-repeated quadratic factors of the type ax
2
+ bx + c.
Since we assume that these factors cannot anymore be factorized,
we have b
2
4 ac < 0.
4. Repeated quadratic factors (ax
2
+ bx + c)
k
, k>1. Also in this case
we have b
2
4 ac < 0.
We will consider each of these four cases separately.
Simple Linear Factors
( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
Consider a rational function of the type
P P

Q
where 0 for all , for , and deg P deg Q .
n n
j
i
j
i j
x x
x a x b a x b a x b
b
b
a j i j n
a a
=
+ + +
= = = < =
( )
( )( ) ( )
1 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
P
for some uniquely defined numbers , 1, , .
n
n n n n
k
x
A A A
a x b a x b a x b a x b a x b a x b
A k n
= + + +
+ + + + + +
=
Case I
Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case I
Simple Linear Factors
2 2
0 1
0 2 ( ) ( )
.
1 1 2 1
A B A
x A B x A B
x x A B B
+ = = + + +
=

= =

( )( )
2
2 2
Consider the rational function .
1 1 1 x x x
=
+
( )( )
2
By the result concerning Case I we can find numbers and such that
2 2
.
x 1 1 1 1 1
A B
A B
x x x x
= = +
+ +
Example
2 2
Compute these numbers in the following way
2 2 ( 1) ( 1)
x 1 1 1 1 ( 1)( 1) ( 1)( 1)
A B A x B x
x x x x x x x
+
= + = +
+ + +
2
2 1 1
So the partial fraction decomposition is .
x 1 1 1 x x
=
+
To get the
equations for A
and B we use
the fact that two
polynomials are
the same if and
only if their
coefficients are
the same.
Simple Quadratic Factors
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
P
Consider a rational function of the type , deg P deg Q .
Q
Assume that the denominator Q has a quadratic factor .
x
x
x ax bx c
<
+ +
2
2
The quadratic factor of the denominator leads to a term
of the type in the partial fraction decomposition.
ax bx c
Ax B
ax bx c
+ +
+
+ +
Case II
Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case II
Simple Quadratic Factors
3 2
2
3 3
The rational function has a term of
1 ( 1)( 1)
the type in its partial fraction decomposition.
1
x x x x
Ax B
x x
=
+ +
+
+ +
2
3 2 3 2 2
3 3 ( )( 1) ( 1)
1 1 1 1 ( 1)( 1) ( 1)( 1)
Ax B C Ax B x C x x
x x x x x x x x x x x
+ + + +
= + = +
+ + + + + +
2
3 3
3 ( ) ( )
1 1
A C x C B A x C B
x x
+ + + +
=

Example
3 2
Hence
3 1 2

x 1 1 1
x
x x x
+
=
+ +
0
0
3
A C
C B A
C B
+ =

+ =

1
2.
1
A
B
C
=

To get these equations use the fact

that the coefficients of the two
numerators must be the same.
Repeated Linear Factors
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
P
Consider a rational function of the type , deg P deg Q .
Q
Assume that the denominator Q has a repeated linear factor , 1.
k
x
x
x ax b k
<
+ >
Case III
( )
( ) ( )
1 2
2
The repeated linear factor of the denominator leads to terms
of the type in the partial fraction
decomposition.
k
k
k
ax b
A A A
ax b
ax b ax b
+
+ + +
+
+ +
Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case III
Repeated Linear Factors
( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
2
2 3 2
2
2
2 3 2
4 4 4

1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
4 4 4

1
1 1
x x A B C
x x x x x
x
A x x B x C x
x x
x x x
x x
+
= + +
+ +
+
+ + + +
+
=
+
+
( ) ( )
( )( )
2
2
2 3 2
2
4 4 4
1
1 1
A C x B C x A B C
x x
x x x
x x
+ + + +
+
=
+
+
4
2 4
4
A C
B C
A B C
+ =

+ =

+ =

( )( )
( )
2 2
2 3 2
2
4 4 4 4 4 4
The rational function has
1
1 1
a partial fraction decomposition of the type .
1 1
1
x x x x
x x x
x x
A B C
x x
x
+ +
=
+
+
+ +
+
+
Example
3
2
1
A
B
C
=

( )
2
2 3 2
4 4 4 3 2 1
We get .
1 1 1
1
x x
x x x x x
x
+
= + +
+ +
+
Equate the
coefficients of the
numerators.
Repeated Quadratic Factors
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
P
Consider a rational function of the type , deg P deg Q .
Q
Assume that the denominator Q has a repeated quadratic factor
, 1.
k
x
x
x
ax bx c k
<
+ + >
Case IV
( )
( ) ( )
2
1 1 2 2
2 2
2 2
The repeated quadratic factor of the denominator leads
to terms of the type
in the partial fraction decomposition.
k
k k
k
ax bx c
A x B A x B A x B
ax bx c
ax bx c ax bx c
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + +
Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case IV
Repeated Quadratic Factors
( )
( )
( )
4 2 4 2
2 5 4 3 2
2
1 1 2 2
2 2
2
2 3 2 3
has a partial
2 2 1
1 1
fraction decomposition of the type .
1 1
1
x x x x x x
x x x x x
x x
A x B A x B C
x x
x
+ +
=
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
Example
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
1 1 2 2
2
2

1 1
1
1 1 1 1

1 1
A x B A x B C
x x
x
A x B x x A x B x C x
x x
+ +
+ + =
+
+
+ + + + + +
+
( )
1 1 2
4 2
2 2 5 4 3 2 2
2
Computing in the same way as before one gets 1,
2 3 1 1
and 0. Hence .
2 2 1 1 1
1
A B A C
x x x x x
B
x x x x x x x
x
= = = =
+ +
= = + +
+ + +
+
Integrating Partial Fraction Decompositions
1. ln
A A
dx ax b K
ax b a
= + +
+
}
( )
( )
1
2. , 1.
1
l
l
ax b
A A
dx K l
a l
ax b

+
= + =

+
}
2
3. and
Ax B
dx
ax bx c
+
+ +
}
After a general partial fraction decomposition one has to deal
with integrals of the following types. There are four cases.
Two first cases are easy.
Here K is the constant of
integration.
In the remaining cases we have to compute integrals of the type:
( )
2
4. , 1
l
Ax B
dx l
ax bx c
+
>
+ +
}
We will discuss the integration of these cases based on
examples. Normally, after some transformations they result
in integrals which are either logarithms or tan
-1
.
Examples
2
3 2 2
To compute these numbers , and we get
3 ( 1) ( )( 1)
1 ( 1)( 1) ( 1)( 1)
A B C
A x x Bx C x
x x x x x x x
+ + +
= +
+ + + +
3
3
Compute .
1
dx
x
}
3 2
3 2
Observe 1 ( 1)( 1). Hence
3
for some numbers , and .
1 1 1
x x x x
A Bx C
A B C
x x x x
= + +
+
= +
+ +
Example 1
0 1
0 1.
3 2
A B A
A B C B
A C C
+ = =

+ = =


= =

2
3 3
3 ( ) ( )
1 1
A B x A B C x A C
x x
+ + + +
=

3 2
Hence
3 1 2

x 1 1 1
x
x x x
+
=
+ +
Examples
3
3
Compute .
1
dx
x
}
2 2
1 2 1 3 1
ln 1
2 1 2 1
x
x dx dx
x x x x
+
=
+ + + +
} }
Example 1 (contd)
( )
( )
2
2
1 3 1
ln 1 ln 1
2 2
1/ 2 3/ 4
x x x dx
x
= + +
+ +
}
3 2
By the previous computations we now have
3 1 2

x 1 1 1
x
dx dx dx
x x x
+
=
+ +
} } }
( )
2
1 2 1
ln 1 ln 1 3arctan
2
3
x
x x x K
+ | |
= + + +
|
\ .
Substitute u=x
2
+x+1
in the first remaining
integral and rewrite
the last integral.
This expression is the required substitution to finish the computation.
Examples
3
2 2
2 2
1 1
x x
x
x x
+
= +

3
2
2 2
1 2 1 1
1 1 1
1
ln| 1| ln| 1| ln .
2 2 1
x
dx x dx
x x x
x x x
x x K K
x
+
| |
= +
|
+
\ .

= + + + = + +
+
} }
3
2
2
Compute .
1
x x
dx
x
+

}
Example 2
We can simplify the function to be integrated by performing polynomial
division first. This needs to be done whenever possible. We get:
3
2 2
2 2 1 1
1 1 1 1
x x
x x
x x x x
+
= + = +
+
Partial fraction decomposition for the remaining rational expression leads to
Now we can integrate