Perception

Defining Perception

Perception

The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information. Complex mental representation integrating particular sensational aspects of a figure

Percept

Sense receptors

Specialized cells that convert physical energy in the environment or the body to electrical energy that can be transmitted as nerve impulses to the brain.

Sensation & Perception Processes

Psychophysics

Study the relationship between stimuli & our psychological response to them Absolute Threshold- The smallest quantity of physical energy that can be reliably detected by an observer. Difference Threshold- The smallest difference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared; Also called Just Noticeable Difference (JND).

Absolute Sensory Thresholds

Vision:

A single candle flame from 30 miles on a dark, clear night

Hearing:

The tick of a watch from 20 feet in total quiet

1 drop of perfume in a 6-room apartment The wing of a bee on your cheek, dropped from 1 cm 1 tsp. Sugar in 2 gal. water

Smell:

Touch:

Taste:

Vision

Electromagnetic spectrum 400-700nm visible (one billionth of a meter) Long wavelengths: AC circuits, radio waves,
infrared rays

Short wavelengths: visible light, X-rays, UV &

gamma rays Other animals can see other segments of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy
Bees can see ultraviolet rays and blue-violet, but not red Pit vipers can see infrared rays Dogs cant see all the colors that humans can (no red)

Our Visible Spectrum

Red

Orange

Yellow

Green

Blue

Indigo Violet

Hue

Visual experience specified by colour names and related to the wavelength of light. Lightness and luminance; the visual experience related to the amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object. Vividness or purity of colour; the visual experience related to the complexity of light waves.

Brightness

Saturation

What We See

Transduction

The process where the eye converts electromagnetic energy (light) into nerve impulses

What We See

Hue Brightness Saturation

Cross Section of the Eye

Cornea

Light is initially focused by this transparent covering over the eye Light enters the eye through this opening Muscle connected to the pupil that changes its size to let in more or less light Everyone has a unique iris (thus it is a new security technique being employed by some organizations)

Pupil

Iris

Lens

This flexible disk under the cornea focuses light onto the back of the eye Accommodation
Flexibility

of the lens allows eye muscles to adjust light from objects at various distances away

Retina

Light reflected from the lens is received by this sheet of tissue at the back of the eye Contains the receptors that convert light to nerve impulses

How we see color: Cones

Retinal cells that respond to particular wavelengths of light, allowing us to see color

Most of our cones are located on the fovea, which gives us the sharpest resolution of visual stimuli 3 types of cones, each sensitive to different light frequencies

How we see in the dark: Rods

Retinal cells that are very sensitive to light but only register shades of gray (i.e., no color) Rods are located everywhere in the retina except in the fovea

Rods allow us to see at night without strong light this is why we see less color at night

Because of where the rods are on the retina, we see best at night without light in the periphery of our vision

Dark adaptation- increased sensitivity of rods and cones in darkness e.g., entering a darkened room Cones: adapt for 10 minutes bet never become very sensitive Rods: continue adapting for 30 minutes and become much more sensitive

Dark Adaptation Experiment

Keep left eye closed or covered for at least 10 minutes, 15 or 20 is better. Then, close right eye and open left Switch back and forth a few times Do you see a difference? You should if you kept your left eye closed long enough

Optic Nerve

From the receptor cells in the retina, the converted impulse from light is directed to the optic nerve

This is the large bundle of nerve fibers that carry impulses from the retina to the brain It sits on the retina but contains no cones or rods, so this is where you experience a blind spot

We arent aware that we have a blind spot because our brain completes patterns that fall across our blind spot and because our eyes are constantly moving (filling it in)

Processing of Visual Information

Retina

Processes electrical impulses, starts to encode and analyze sensory information (at the most basic level) Neurons pick up the messages from retina, transmit to the thalamus, then on to the visual cortex, then on to more specified areas

Optic Nerve

Optic Chiasm: Where optic nerves (actually 1/2 of each retina) cross over from left to right

How We See Colours

Trichromatic theory Opponent process theory

Trichromatic Theory

Young (1802) & von Helmholtz (1852) both proposed that the eye detects 3 primary colours:

red, blue, & green

All other colours can be derived by combining these three.

Opponent-Process Theory

Hering proposed a theory that color perception depends on receptors that make opposing responses to three pairs of colors:

black-white red-green blue-yellow

Test of Colour Deficiency

People who suffer red-green blindness have trouble perceiving the number within the design

Constructing the Visual World

Figure and Ground Form perception Depth and distance perception Perceptual constancy Illusion

Figure and Ground

We recognize figures (objects) by distinguishing them from the background

Distinction between figure and ground (Rubin, 1915)

Figure has a shape, while ground is shapeless Ground seems to extend behind the figure Figure seems to appear out of the ground Figure is more meaningful and better remembered

Form Perception

Gestalt principles describe the brains organization of sensory building blocks into meaningful units and patterns.

Laws of Perceptual Organization

Proximity Similarity Continuity Closure Connectedness

Proximity

Similarity

Continuity

Closure

Connectedness

Depth and Distance Perception

Depth perception: the ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally despite of two dimensional image on the retina.

Binocular cues: depth cues that require information from both eyes Monocular cues: depth cues that require information from only one eye

Depth and Distance Perception

Binocular Cues:
Convergence: Turning inward of the eyes, which occurs when they focus on a nearby object. Retinal Disparity: Since we use both our eyes to focus on an image, the angles used by each eye to put the image on the fovea of our retina is used by the brain to perceive distance

images from the two eyes differ closer the object, the larger the disparity

Depth and Distance Perception

Monocular Cues:

Visual cues to depth or distance that can be used by one eye alone.

Relative Size

Linear Perspective

Two parallel lines appear to converge as they move away.

Interposition

One object, by partially blocking another, is perceived as being closer.

Ariel Perspective

More distant objects have less detail than closer objects because the atmosphere bends and distorts light waves

Texture Gradient

Objects seen at greater distances appear to be smoother and less textured.

Motion Parallax

Has to do with relationship between movement and distance When riding in train or car

near objects rush past you distant objects seem to move with you

Perceptual Constancy - Vision

The image of an object on your retina can very in size, shape, and brightness

But we still continue to perceive the object as stable in size, shape and brightness The tendency to view an object as constant in size despite changes in the size of its image on the retina (as we move) The tendency to see an object as retaining its form despite changes in orientation

Size constancy

Shape constancy

Shape Constancy

Size Constancy

Visual Illusions

Illusions are valuable in understanding perception because they are systematic errors.

Illusions provide hints about perceptual strategies.

In the Muller-Lyer illusion (above) we tend to perceive the line on the right as slightly longer than the one on the left.

The Ponzo Illusion

Linear perspective provides context Side lines seem to converge Top line seems farther away

But the retinal images of the red lines are equal!

Illusion and Hallucination

Hallucination- false perception

Illusion- incorrect perception

Illusions of Movement

The Autokinetic illusion Stroboscopic motion The phi phenomenon

Autokinetic Movement (Illusion)

A stationary spot of light in a dark room appears to move Occurs because we lack of a frame of reference Our eyes constantly make small involuntary movements which we are normally unaware of

Stroboscopic Motion

Apparent motion resulting from seeing gradually changing images in rapid succession (e.g., a movie or cartoon) Once a certain speed is reached, the eye cannot separate the images and continuous motion is perceived

Phi Phenomenon

Apparent movement caused by flashing lights in sequence (e.g., movie theatre marquis) One light flashes, then a second, and a third. With the right combination of distance and speed, we perceive one moving light

Hearing

Auditory System

If a tree falls in the forest with no one around, does it still make a sound?

No! Sound is the perception (i.e., transduction) of moving air waves Frequency of air waves Amplitude of air waves

Pitch

Loudness/volume

The Ear

1. Outer Ear:

Pinna: directs sound waves into the auditory canal Auditory Canal: conducts sound to the eardrum Eardrum: thin membrane that vibrates in response to sound, and transfers sound energy to bones of the middle ear

Middle Ear: three tiny bones amplify

sound and transfer sound energy to the inner ear Hammer Anvil Stirrup

Inner Ear: where sound energy is registered Cochlea: snail shaped fluid-filled structure Oval window: thin membrane, transfers vibrations from stirrup to fluid of cochlea Basilar membrane: runs the length of the cochlea Organ of Corti: rests on basilar membrane, contains receptor cells Semicircular canal: contains fluid which helps to maintain balance of head

The process of hearing

Air waves move the tympanic membrane (eardrum), which moves the hammer, anvil and stirrup (these all amplify the air wave and pass it on). to the basilar membrane in the cochlea
Here,

different frequencies are transduced via hair cells (i.e., the rods and cones of the ear) into nerve impulses that are sent to the auditory cortex of the brain

Theories of Hearing

Loudness: the louder the sound, the more receptors fire Pitch (frequency) 3 theories

place theory: frequency theory volley theory (principle)

Place Theory

different frequencies cause vibrations at different locations (places) along basilar membrane higher frequencies at base, lower frequencies at top

Frequency Theory

Neural impulses are stimulated more with higher frequencies of air waves

Volley Theory

Receptor cells fire in groups: first one, then another, then a third Resetting: the first group of cells to fire are resetting while the second and third groups fire and so on

Skin Senses

Touch

Skin is the bodys largest sensory organ Millions of skin receptors mix and match to produce specific perception Four basic types of sensations
Pressure,

warmth, cold, and pain

Temperature

Two separate sensory systems one for signaling warmth and the other for signaling cold Also have distinct spots on the skin that register only warmth or cold
If

you activate both at the same time, the person perceives hot!

Pain

Pain serves a function it warns

us of impending danger

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters in the brain that have a pain-killing effect Pain impulses can be inhibited by closing of neural gates in the spinal cord

Gate-control theory

Gate-Control Theory of Pain

Experience of pain depends (in part) on whether the pain impulse gets past neurological gate in the spinal cord and thus reaches the brain.

Gustation (Taste)

Detects molecules of substances that have dissolved in saliva

Gustation (Taste)

Papillae

Knoblike elevations on the tongue, containing the taste buds (Singular: papilla).

Taste buds

Nests of taste-receptor cells.

Taste Buds

Clusters of hair-like receptor cells

Within each bud is a cluster of 50 to 150 receptor cells

Four types: sweet, sour, salty & bitter

10,000 taste buds line the tongue and mouth. Children have more taste buds than adults.

The sense of taste combines with the sense of smell to produce perception of flavor of food

Research suggests that neural impulses for both senses converge to some degree in brain area associated with the perception of flavor When the sense of smell is blocked, we have a harder time detecting most flavors

Olfaction (Smell)

Olfaction

Detects molecules in the air

Olfactory receptors (i.e., the locks) are built so that only molecules (the keys) with particular shapes will fit in particular receptors Receptors send neural signals to the brain, passing the thalamus (memory) and the limbic system (emotions) along the way

Lock-and-key

This is why odors often trigger emotional memories

Body Senses

Kinesthetic sense

Provides info about position of joints, muscles, limbs

Gives us control over body movements

Vestibular sense

Provides info about bodys orientation relative to gravity and heads position in space
Helps us maintain balance Relies on semicircular canals in the inner ear

Perceptual Powers: Origins and Influences

Inborn Abilities Critical Periods Psychological and Cultural Influences on Perception Information Processing Style

Glass surface, with checkerboard underneath at different heights

The Visual Cliff

Visual illusion of a cliff Baby cant fall

Mom stands across the gap Babies show increased attention over deep side at age 2 months, but arent afraid until about the age they can crawl (Gibson &
Walk, 1960)

The Visual Cliff

Critical Periods

If infants miss out on experiences during a crucial period of time, perception will be impaired. When adults who have been blind since birth have vision restored, they may not see well Other senses such has hearing may be influenced similarly. Study on Gooslings

Psychological and Cultural Influences on Perception

We are more likely to perceive something when we need it. Emotions, such as fear, can influence perceptions of sensory information. Expectations based on our previous experiences influence how we perceive the world.

Perceptual Set

A habitual way of perceiving, based on expectations.

All are influenced by our culture.

Perceptual Set

Context Effects

The same physical stimulus can be interpreted differently We use other cues in the situation to resolve ambiguities Is this the letter B or the number 13?

Information processing

Bottom-up processing

Information processing in which individual components or bits of data are combined until a complete perception is formed Application of previous experience and conceptual knowledge to recognize the whole of a perception and thus easily identify the simpler elements of that whole

Top-down processing

Puzzles of Perception

Subliminal Perception Extrasensory Perception: Reality or Illusion?

Subliminal Perception

Perceiving without awareness

visual stimuli can affect your behaviour even when you are unaware that you saw it nonconscious processing also occurs in memory, thinking, and decision making

Extrasensory Perception

Extrasensory Perception (ESP):

The ability to perceive something without ordinary sensory information This has not been scientifically demonstrated Telepathy Mind-to-mind communication Clairvoyance Perception of remote events Precognition Ability to see future events

Three types of ESP:

Parapsychology

The study of purported psychic phenomena such as ESP and mental telepathy. Persinger suggests that psychic phenomena are related to signs of temporal lobe epilepsy in otherwise neurologically normal individuals. Most ESP studies produce negative findings and are not easily replicated.