general learning principle

Derived

from research by education psychologists Important for teacher to understand clearly how pupils learn

Learning theories can be classified into 4 main theoretical perspectives: Behaviourism Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Cognitive Piagets Cognitive Learning Theory Social Banduras Modelling Theory Constructivism Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development

Emphasizes the study of observable and measurable behaviour Study the overt behaviour of organism and its effect on environment Based on the observations and experiments on animals Focus on the relationship between stimuli and responses which resulted in changes of behaviour This learning theory is also known as Stimulus-Response Theory.

a)

Before conditioning
a) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) : MEAT POWDER Unconditioned response (UCR): SALIVATION

b) Neutral stimulus (NS): BELL SOUND

Response not related with unconditioned responses: THE DOGS ATTENTION ONLY

b)

During conditioning
Unconditioned Response (UCR: SALIVATION)

The neutral stimulus (NS: BELL SOUND)

+ unconditioned stimulus (UCS: MEAT POWDER)

c)

After conditioning
The neutral stimulus (NS) @ Conditioned stimulus(CS) : BELL SOUND Its response - conditioned response (CR): SALIVATION

1. a)

Process of conditioning activities Before conditioning

Teacher teaching in the class for the first time Pupils attention towards the teaching activities only

UCS

UCR

b)

During conditioning
Teacher (CS) teaching in an attractive manner. Pupils pay attention to teachers teaching (CR)

c)

After conditioning
Teachers presence (CS)

Pupils pay attention to teachers teaching (CR)

Classical conditioning on language learning a) Teach the word BOOK (UCS), paired up with BOOK express verbally by pupils (UCR)
2.

UCS

BOOK

UCR

b) Under this condition, the teacher can begin to

use the existing relationship between them (UCSUCR) to form a new relationship c) Showing a flash card written with the word BOOK, which subsequently paired up with a book (CSCR), express verbally by pupils (CR)

BOOK
BOOK (CS)

UCS

UCR=CR

Many mathematical principles and laws can also be learned through the process of higher-order conditioning. a) Before conditioning
3.
Y m It is a straight line with gradient m and intercept on the y-axis at c

CS

UCR=CR

b) During conditioning
Y m y=mx+c c x It is a straight line with gradient m and intercept on the y-axis at c

New CS + CS

UCR=CR

c) After conditioning

It is a straight line with gradient m and intercept on the y-axis at c

y=mx+c

New CS

CR

Cognitive psychologists view learning as an internal process which occur in rational thinking and cannot be observed directly from human behaviour. Emphasis on pupils insight, process of solving problem (according to age and ability) Concentrate effort on learning methods such as: Insight Reasoning Approach of problem-solving Discovery Conceptualization Assimilation accommodation

Emphasizes on selfadaptation. Jean Piaget Considered that during the selfadaptation process, individual learning has actually occurred when the individual acquires experience from the process of his interaction with other people, things or objects that exist in the environment.

Contained explanation of 5 basic ideas:

schema

Adaptation
Equilibration Assimilation accommodation

a structured clusters of information

used to represent a certain event, concept,

action or process

To organize and simplify information

to achieve cognitive economy, reducing its complexity and

understanding

facilitating

Individuals schema
expressed in the form of action, language,

thinking, opinion or idea that represent characteristic of individual behaviour.

During the childrens stages of development, their behaviour or schema changes from time to time
from clumsy to skillful from simple to complex

For instance, the form of childrens action, such as using their hands to hold a certain object is actually one of their physical schemas.

Adaptation and equilibration are interrelated and mutually influenced each other. Both use schemas as their basic form of action Adaptation

the process of change in schema so as to meet

the requirement of a certain situation

The occurrence of adaptation process

is due to the temporary loss of equilibration

between the individual and his environment.

Assimilation Individuals usually use their own experiences, opinion, attitude and the form of reaction that they possessed to undergo the process of self-adaptation. This form of individuals action is the same as using the existing cognitive structure in new experience to undergo adaptation for the requirement in a new situation. The aim here is to use a certain way which can fit the new experience into the old experience.

For example, an infant knows how to grab his favorite rattle and thrust it into his mouth. Hes got that schema down pat. When he comes across some other object -- say daddys expensive watch, he easily learns to transfer his grab and thrust schema to the new object. This Piaget called assimilation.

Accommodation Sometimes, using assimilation alone is unable to fulfill the need of certain situation. In this connection, the individual has to change his cognitive structure. An individual tries to use his own initiative to change his cognitive structure so as to adapt to the requirement of a new learning situation.

For example, when our infant comes across another object again -- say a beach ball -- he will try his old schema of grab and thrust. This of course works poorly with the new object. So the schema will adapt to the new object: Perhaps, in this example, squeeze and drool would be an appropriate title for the new schema. This is called accommodation

Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accommodation). Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

 Learning

content should be arranged according to the childrens level of cognitive development From concrete to abstract From nearby to distant situation From existing experience to new experience Form elementary to sophisticated

Pupils can only understand mathematics concept through concrete experience Teaching aids play an important role in presenting mathematics concept effectively For instance, the teaching of geometry should be introduced with illustrative diagram or model.

Relax!