Educational Psychology

Name and describe Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Note behaviors associated with each stage and the implications of the theory for classroom practice. Evaluate the theory and compare/contrast it with Bingham & Strykers theory of socioemotional development for girls.
Developed by W. Huitt, 1999

Eriksons Theory
Erik Erikson was a follower of Sigmund Freud who broke with his teacher over the fundamental point of what motivates or drives human behavior. For Freud it was biology or more specifically the biological instincts of life and aggression.

Eriksons Theory
For Erikson, who was not trained in biology and/or the medical sciences (unlike Freud and many of his contemporaries), the most important force driving human behavior and the development of personality was social interaction.

Eriksons Theory
Erikson left his native Germany in the 1930's and immigrated to America where he studied Native American traditions of human development and continued his work as a psychoanalyst. His developmental theory of the "Eight Stages of Man" was unique in that it covered the entire lifespan rather than childhood and adolescent development.

Eriksons Theory
Eriksons view was that the social environment combined with biological maturation provides each individual with a set of crises that must be resolved. The individual is provided with a "sensitive period" in which to successfully resolve each crisis before a new crisis is presented.

Eriksons Theory
The results of the resolution, whether successful or not, are carried forward to the next crisis and provide the foundation for its resolution.

Eriksons Eight Stages

Child develops a belief that the environment can be counted on to meet his or her basic physiological and social needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infancy

Eriksons Eight Stages

Child learns what he/she can control and develops a sense of free will and corresponding sense of regret and sorrow for inappropriate use of self-control.

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Toddlerhood

Eriksons Eight Stages

Child learns to begin action, to explore, to imagine as well as feeling remorse for actions.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Early Childhood

Eriksons Eight Stages

Child learns to do things well or correctly in comparison to a standard or to others

Industry vs. Inferiority

Middle Childhood

Eriksons Eight Stages

Develops a sense of self in relationship to others and to own internal thoughts and desires social identity personal identity

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence

Eriksons Eight Stages

Develops ability to give and receive love; begins to make long-term commitment to relationships

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young Adulthood

Eriksons Eight Stages

Develops interest in guiding the development of the next generation

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle Adulthood

Eriksons Eight Stages

Develops a sense of acceptance of life as it was lived and the importance of the people and relationships that individual developed over the lifespan

Egointegrity vs. Despair

Later Adulthood

Bingham & Strykers Theory

A major criticism of Eriksons theory is that it is based primarily on work done with boys and men. Bingham and Stryker (1995) suggest that development of identity, intimacy and generativity may receive different emphases throughout adulthood for men and women.
Bingham, M., & Stryker, S. (1995). Things will be different for my daughter: A practical guide to building her self-esteem and self-reliance. New York: Penguin Books.

Bingham & Strykers Theory

Bingham and Stiker propose five stages of socioemotional development for girls and women that parallels those proposed by Erikson, but places different emphases at important sensitive time periods.

Bingham & Strykers Theory

Feel in control of own life, committed to specific activities, look forward to challenge and opportunity for growth

Developing the Hardy Personality

Through age 8

Bingham & Strykers Theory

Develop steady, durable core of self as person who is capable of accomplishment in a variety of areas (e.g., intellectual, physical, social, potential career)

Form Identity as an Achiever

Age 9-12

Bingham & Strykers Theory

Feeling of being worthy, deserving, entitled to assert needs and wants; confidence in ability to cope with life

Skill Building for SelfEsteem

Age 13-16

Bingham & Strykers Theory

Sense of responsibility for taking care of herself and, perhaps, a family; based on a sense of autonomy

Strategies for SelfSufficiency (Emotional -Financial)

Age 17-22

Bingham & Strykers Theory

Contentedness in personal accomplishments and social/personal relationships

Satisfaction in Work and Love

Adulthood

A Hardy Personality
Suzanne Kobasa Ouellette, a professor at the City University of New York suggests that a hardy personality is based on three C's: control, commitment, and challenge.

A Hardy Personality
Ouellette proposes that these can be developed through the acquisition of eight specific skills: Recognize and tolerate anxiety and act anyway; Separate fantasy from reality and tackle reality; Set goals and establish priorities;

A Hardy Personality
Ouellette proposes that these can be developed through the acquisition of eight specific skills: Project into the future and understand how today's choices affect the future; Discriminate and make choices consistent with goals and values; Set boundaries and limits;

A Hardy Personality
Ouellette proposes that these can be developed through the acquisition of eight specific skills: Ask assertively for wants and desires; Trust self and own perceptions.

Theories Compared
The competencies for developing a hardy personality seem to be very similar to the to the outcomes of a satisfactory resolution of the first three crises proposed by Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt

Theories Compared
What may be different is that these are not the traditional desired outcomes of infancy and early childhood for girls. Rather there may be a tendency to socialize girls to be more acquiescent and dependent, which is to their detriment in terms of further development.

Theories Compared
Eriksons stage of Industry vs. Inferiority seems to be essentially equivalent to Bingham and Strykers Form Identity as an Achiever. For boys, there may be more of an opportunity to address the issue of any deficiencies in a sense of accomplishment within the stage of identity formation.

Theories Compared
However, it is likely that if girls have not successfully developed a sense of accomplishment during middle and late childhood, it may be a decade or more before there is an opportunity to again tackle this issue. This is because as girls attend to the issue of identity, their natural attention to relationships produces a different pathway for identity development .

Self-Esteem
Another issue is the drop in self-esteem that occurs naturally as a part of adolescence in modern society. The importance of self-esteem for girls in the adolescent years cannot be overemphasized.

Self-Esteem
A study by the American Association of University Women (AAUW, 1991) showed that girls had a precipitous drop in self-esteem between elementary and high school. While boys also showed a decline it was not nearly as dramatic.

Self-Esteem
Percentage Responding Positively to the statement "I am happy the way I am"
High Elementary School % Decrease

Boys White Girls African-American Girls Hispanic Girls

67 60 65 68

46 29 58 30

19 31 7 38

Theories Compared
A major difference between the Erikson and Bingham-Stryker models occurs in the stages of adulthood. In Erikson's model the crisis of young adulthood is intimacy versus isolation. In the Bingham-Stryker model the crisis is emotional and financial self-sufficiency.

Theories Compared
The difference may lie in gender expectations. Men are expected to become self-sufficient; the male crisis is one of establishing intimacy. Women are expected to establish relationships; the female crisis is autonomy in terms of taking care of themselves emotionally and financially.

Theories Compared
Similar differences exist in middle and older adulthood. Erikson considers two separate crises: Generativity and Ego Integrity. Bingham and Stryker hypothesize one crisis for adult women: Satisfaction in Work and Love

The End