CHAPTER 8

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Understanding the process of colonisation & succession in an ecosystem

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State what an ecosystem is Identify the niche, habitat, community & population of an ecosystem Explain the process of colonisation & succession Identify the pioneer species in an ecosystem Identify the successors in an ecosystem Identify the dominant species in an ecosystem Identify.

An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of living organisms with one another & with their environment. Ecology = the scientific study of the interactions of living organisms with other living organisms & with the physical environment.

Is a natural environment where organisms live A habitat provides basic resources of life such as food, shelter,living, nesting sites & mates Example : mudskipper in the mud in mangrove swamps

Is a group of organism that look alike & have similar characteristics, share the same roles in an ecosystem & are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.

Is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same habitat at the same time Example: population of elephant that live in the jungle & population of grasshopper living in the paddy field

Several populations of different species living in the same habitat in an ecosystem The members of the community are interdependent & interact with one another in order to survive

The organisms role in the ecosystem The niche of a population includes the range of temperatures at which it lives, the type of food it eats & the space it occupies 2 species cannot share the same ecological niche However, individuals of the same species may have different niches (animal that undergo metamorphosis) Example: tadpole (water), adult frog (land).

Colonisation takes place in newly formed areas where no life previously existed For example, very few species can survive in an environment of sand & stones since it stores little water & has few available nutrients. The first colonisers are called pioneer species.

Have special adaptations-enable to survive on dry & nutrient-poor soil Hardy plants Usually have dense root systems to bind the sand particles & hold water & humus Have a short life cycle Die & add to the humus content of the soil They establish conditions that are more conducive to other species called successor species

This plants grow bigger than the pioneer species So, reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches them (PS) & gradually replacing them Have small winddispersable seeds-able to spread & grow rapidly Change the structure & structure & quality of the soil,make it more conducive for larger plants to grow-dominant species

Can grow faster & so they out-compete the pioneers which grow at a slower rate As time passes, the dominant species turn modify the environment which allows larger trees to grow-climax community

Example : tropical rainforest (Malaysia) Stable community Undergoes little or no changes in its species composition So, succession stops

Found in tropical & subtropical regions where freshwater meets salt water Characteristic: soft, muddy soil with high concentration of salt & low levels of oxygen, exposed to a high intensity of sunlight Plants grow here are well adapted to these harsh conditions

Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp. pioneer species Rhizophora sp. successor Bruguiera sp. - successor

Have long underground cable roots that support them in the soft, muddy soil Their roots produce hundreds of thin, vertical breathing roots called pneumatophores Pneumatophores which project above the water around the trees

Have prop roots-these aerial roots anchor the plants to the mud, also play important role in aeration Aeration also occurs through lenticels found on the tree bark

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Their leaves have thick cuticles that help them reduce transpiration during hot weather Leaves are succulent-able to store water Roots cell have higher osmotic pressure than the surrounding salt water Salt water that enter the roots cell is excreted through hydathodes- the pore in the epidermis of the leaves

5. Their seeds able to germinate while still attached to the parent tree. This phenomenon called vivipary.

Population ecology= studies of the structure & dynamics of populations Population density= the no. of organisms per unit area of the habitat Population density affected by:

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Abiotic factor Biotic factor Birth rate Death rate Immigration emigration

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Direct counting-useful for large organisms in an open habitat Sampling take a sample ( a small number) of organism.

Primarily used in estimating the size of palnt population Used in the study of the population of immobile animals Quadrat typically a metal or a wooden frame which forms a square of a known area Size of a qudrat used depends on the organisms being studied Can determine frequency,density & percentage coverage

The no of times a particular species is pound present when a quadrat is thrown a certain no of times
Frequency = no of quadrats containing the species X 100%
No. of quadrats

No of individuals of a species per unit area

Density = total no. of individuals of a species in all quadrats No. of quadrats X quadrats area

How much area of the quadrat is occupied by a species

Percentage coverage = aerial coverage of all quadrats (m2) X 100

No. of quadrats X quadrat area

Use to estimate the population of mobile animals such as small mammals, birds, insects Procedures: 1. Specific animal is captured & marked [ring,tag,waterproof ink,paint,nail varnish] 2. Released the marked animal into general population 3. Second sample is captured 4. No. of marked animals is recorded.

Population size = (no. of individual 1st sample) X (no. of individual 2nd sample)
No. of marked individuals recaptured

Biodiversity = the diverse species of plants & animals interacting with one another on earth So, organism will be classified into certain group

Is a branch of Biology concerned with identifying, describing & naming organisms A systematic method of classifying plants & animals based on the similarities in their characteristics


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Organisms classified into 5 major kingdoms :

Monera Protista Fungi Animalia Plantae

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Prokaryotic organism Unicellular & have cell walls but lack of both membrane-bound nuclei & organelles Can be non-photosynthetic Example: bacteria & cynobacteria ( bluegreen algae)

Includes a variety of unicellular & a few multicellular eukaryotes such as alga & protozoa. Their cells have nucleolus & organelles surrounded by membranes Can either heterotrophic @ autotrophic, even both Example: amoeba sp., paramecium sp., chlamydomonas sp.

Heterotrophic multicellular eukaryotes Some fungi are unicellular The cell walls of fungi contain a material chitin The main bodies consist of a network of thread like hyphae called mycelium Do not contain chlorophyll Example: mucor sp., mushrooms, yeast

All land plants Immobile, multicellular eukaryotes that produce their own food ( photosynthesis) Example: mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants

Multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes Do not have cell wall Most can move Some permanently attached to the surfacesbarnacles, sponges Examples: invertebrates, fish,reptiles, birds, mammals

Kingdom

Phylum

class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

Each organism is given a scientific name according to an internationally accepted system of nomenclature Each organism has two names in Latin The first name begins with capital letter refers to the Genus Second name begins with a small letter refers to the species Genus & species are written in italics

Common name Durian Oil palm Lion Frog

Scientific name Durio zibenthinus Elaeis guineensis Panthera leo Bufo melanostictus

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Fruit

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae

Genus species Scientific name: Homo sapiens Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens

microorganism= tiny organisms that can only be seen clearly under the microscope Most are harmless & useful to humans Others can cause diseases in plant & animals including humans Divided into 5 types: 1. Virus 2. Bacteria 3. Algae 4. Protozoa 5. fungi

Unicelullar organisms which have a basic cell structure that includes: cell wall,plasma membrane, DNA that is not enclosed in a membrane Cell walls made of a polymer called peptidoglycan Certain bacteria spores under unfavourable condition Their shape may be spherical(coccus), rodshaped(bacillus) or spiral (spirillum) Example: Lactobacillus sp. ,Staphylococcus sp.

Photosynthetic eukaryotic plant-like organism Have chlorophyll & chloroplast Their cell wall made of cellulose Do not have leaves, stems or roots Example: phytoplankton & Spirogyra sp.

Heterotrophic multicellular or unicellular eukaryotes Do not have chlorophyll Cell walls are made of chitin Feed by secreting enzymes that breaks the surrounding organic material down into simple molecules before they are absorbed Example: Mucor sp & yeast

Unicellular organisms Have nucleus, cytoplasm & plasma membrane Can carry out living processes such as respiration, reproduction & excretion Use flagella, cilia or pseudopodia to move Example: Euglena sp., Paramecium sp.,& Amoeba sp.

The smallest miroorganisms which can only be seen under an electron microscope Not a living cell because it cannot survive or reproduce on its own outside the host It must infect & use living cell to reproduce A virus is composed of DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat Can be cristallised Example:T4 bacteriophage & tobacco mosaic virus

All microorganisms except viruses need nutrients & water for reproduction & growth Most bacteria prefer slightly alkaline conditions (pH around 7.4) Yeast & protozoa prefer acidic conditions (pH between 4.5 & 5.0) Prefer places which are dark or have a low light intensity A high intensity of sunlight & ultraviolet rays can kill microorganism However, algae & photosynthetic bacteria need light to photosynthesis

Most microorganism are inactive at low temperatures. The optimum temperature for most microorganism is between 35C & 40C. Beyond 60C, the growth of microorganism is inhibited Microoganisms & their spores can only be destroyed when they are sterilised at a temperature of about 121C

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Decomposition-bacteria & fungi (decomposers) breaks down the dead plants & animal & waste products to release nutrients into the soil The nitrogen cycle Alimentary canal of termites Digestive system in human- symbiotic bacteria in human colon-synthesise vitamins B12 (avoid anemia) and vitamin K ( blood clotting).

Cause disease & spoilage of food microorganism that can cause diseases are called pathogens A pathogen can only cause disease if it succeeds in getting into our body cells. Our skin is protected by a layer of cells through which pathogen cannot penetrate

Microorganisms can enter the alimentary canal through the food & water that we take [typhoid & cholera] Also can enter our body through the respiratory tract [ colds & tuberculosis]

When we sneeze,or speak, the droplets from the mouth or nose are released & float in the air When these droplets breathed in by other people Can infect the person & cause him to fall ill

Sometimes, the pathogens can change into spores which can be transmitted through air

Some pathogens are transmitted by other organisms such as mosquitoes & flies These organisms are carriers of diseases and are known as vectors Example : malaria caused by a protozoan called Plasmodium sp. It is transmitted from one host to another by the female mosquito Anopheles sp. Houseflies can spread cholera disease

A contagious disease can be spread by contact with an infected person by sharing personal item such as towels, clothing or bedlinen with infected person Example: skin disease tinea or ringworm which is caused by fungus

Some disease are transmitted through sexual intercourse with an infected person Example: AIDS & syphilis

Antibiotics

Anticeptics

Methods of controlling pathogens

Vaccines

Disinfectants

Such as penicilin & streptomycin are chemicals produced by microorganisms which are inhibits the growth or kill other microorganism, especially bacteria.

Are modified or weakened forms of bacteria or viruses A vaccine is a suspension of dead bacteria or viruses which is inoculated into our body to induce the production of antibodies Example: BCG

Are solutions used to kill microorganisms on the floor, buildings or furniture Also used to sterilise surgical equipment Examples: phenol, formaldehyde & carbolic acid

Are used on cuts and wounds to kill & inhibits the growth of microorganisms Example: acriflavin & iodine solution

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Production of antibiotics & vaccines Cleaning of oil spills Waste treatment Food processing Production of bioplastic Production of energy from biomass

Example of antibiotic=streptomycin-oroduce by bacteria Streptomyces sp. & penicillin produced by Penicilium sp. Vaccine =commercially produced antigen of a particular disease-stimulate body to produce antibodies Prepared from virus or bacteria that are dead or weakened

Convert pollutant into compounds that not harmful-biorestoration Example: oil spill from ship can be cleaned up using certain bacteria that break down the oil into carbon dioxide & water

Waste materials (domestic waste, organic waste from industry) can be treated by using bacteria. Waste materials in the liquid state is pumped into a treatment plant Bacteria together with oxygen & minerals are added to break down the waste material into harmless substances

In cheese,yogurt,wine,bread,soya sauce Ethanol is produced by yeast in the fermentation process Yeast is used to produce alcoholic drinks & to make the bread rise by fermentation. Yogurt produced from fermented milk by adding bacteria such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus

Plastic nonbiodegradable Bacteria are used in industry to produce chemical substances which are used to make a certain type of plastic that can decompose in a few month

Organic waste are decomposed by anaerobic bacteria Methane gas is produced Waste from oil palm produce biogas-energy source