You are on page 1of 85

Community

Interactions
Forest of New Guinea
 Community includes nine species of
pigeons that partition the food
supply
 Pigeons disperse seeds of the trees
that provide their food (fruit)
 These are just a few of the many
interactions that shape this
community
Community 

 All the populations that live together in a 

habitat
 Habitat is the type of place where 

individuals of a species typically live 
 Type of habitat shapes a community’s 

structure
Factors Shaping
Community Structure
 Climate and topography
 Available foods and resources
 Adaptations of species in community
 Species interactions
 Arrival and disappearance of species
 Physical disturbances
Question 1
 1.A(n) ______ is the type of place 
where individuals of a species typically 
live.
Answer 1
 1.A habitat is the type of place where 
individuals of a species typically live.
Question 2
 2.All the populations that live together in 
a habitat is known as the _________.
Answer 2
 2.All the populations that live together in 
a habitat is known as the community.
Question 3
3. Cite three (3) factors which shape
community structure. There are
several.
Answer 3
3. Cite three (3) factors which shape community
structure. There are several.
 Climate and topography
 Available foods and resources
 Adaptations of species in community
 Species interactions
 Arrival and disappearance of species
 Physical disturbances
Niche

Sum of activities and relationships in

which a species engages to secure

and use resources necessary for

survival and reproduction


Realized &
Fundamental Niches
 Fundamental niche
– Theoretical niche occupied in the
absence of any competing species
 Realized niche
– Niche a species actually occupies
 Realized
niche is some fraction of the
fundamental niche
Species Interactions

 Most interactions are neutral; have


no effect on either species
 Commensalism helps one species
and has no effect on the other
 Mutualism helps both species
Species Interactions
 Interspecific competition has a
negative effect on both species
 Predation and parasitism both benefit
one species at a cost to another
Symbiosis

 Living together for at least some part


of the life cycle
 Commensalism, mutualism, and
parasitism are forms of symbiosis
Mutualism

 Both species benefit

 Many examples in nature

 Some mutualisms are obligatory; 

partners depend upon each other
Yucca and Yucca Moth

 Example of an obligatory mutualism


 Each species of yucca is pollinated
only by one species of moth
 Moth larvae can grow only in that
one species of yucca
Mycorrhizae

 Obligatory mutualism between

fungus and plant root

 Fungus supplies mineral ions to root

 Root supplies sugars to fungus


Laccaria bicolor basidioma
developing on a Pinus strobus
seedling under controlled
environment.
Question 4
4. Define niche.
Answer 4
 4. Define niche.

Sum of activities and relationships in

which a species engages to secure

and use resources necessary for

survival and reproduction (Its role in

the environment).
Question 5
 5.
What is mutualism? Give an
example.
Answer 5
 5.
What is mutualism? Give an
example.

A close relationship where both


species benefit.

 Yucca moth and Yucca


Question 6
 6.
What is commensalism? Give an
example.
Answer 6
 6.
What is commensalism? Give an
example.

 Commensalism helps one species


and has no effect on the other
 Snail and shrimp
Competition

 Interspecific ­ between species

 Intraspecific ­ between members of the 

same species

 Intraspecific competition is most intense
Forms of Competition

 Competitors may have equal access


to a resource; compete to exploit
resource more effectively
 One competitor may be able to
control access to a resource, to
exclude others
Question 7
 7.
There are two major types of
competition. What are they?
Answer 7
 7.
There are two major types of
competition. What are they?

 Intraspecific: within the species

 Interspecific: between species


Question 8
 8.How do river otters reduce
intraspecific competition?
Answer 8
 8.How do river otters reduce
intraspecific competition?

 They avoid each other (partition


the river).
Competitive Exclusion Principle

When two species compete for

identical resources, one will be more

successful and will eventually

eliminate the other


Resource Partitioning

 Apparent competitors
may actually have
slightly different
niches
 Species may use
resources in a
different way or time
 Minimizes
competition and
Question 9
 9.
Define competitive exclusion
principle.
Answer 9
 9.
Define competitive exclusion
principle.

 When two species compete for


identical resources, one will be
more successful and will
eventually eliminate the other.
Question 10
 10.What is the adaptive advantage
of resource partitioning?
Answer 10
 10.What is the adaptive advantage
of resource partitioning?

 Minimizescompetition and
allows coexistence
Predation

 Predators are animals that feed on other 

living organisms

 Predators are free­living; they do not 

take up residence on their prey
Coevolution

 Natural selection promotes traits that


help prey escape predation
 It also promotes traits that make
predators more successful at
capturing prey
Predator-Prey Cycles
 Predator
and prey populations may
show an apparent correspondence

PREY
POPULATION

PREDATOR
POPULATION
Variation in Cycles
 An association in predator and prey
abundance does not always indicate
a cause and effect relationship
 Variations in food supply and
additional predators may also
influence changes in prey abundance
Prey Defenses

 Camouflage

 Warning coloration

 Mimicry

 Moment­of­truth defenses
Stay Out of Harm’s Way…
 Fri Feb 17, 12:35 AM ET

 CANBERRA (Reuters) - A tiger's roar might be scary, but


Australian researchers have found that the predator's poo
is just as potent.

 Researchers at the University of Queensland said on Friday
they had successfully trialled a tiger poo repellant, warding
off wild goats for at least three days.

 "Goats wouldn't have seen a tiger from an evolutionary


point of view for at least 15 generations but they recognize
the smell of the predator," repellent creator Peter Murray
said in a statement.
Predator Responses
 Any adaptation that protects prey
may select for predators that can
overcome that adaptation
 Predator adaptations include stealth,
camouflage, and ways to avoid
chemical repellents
Question 11
 11.How are predators different from
parasites?
Answer 11
 11.How are predators different from
parasites?

 Predators are free­living; they do not 
take up residence on their prey.
Question 12
 12.What are two examples of
predator responses?
Answer 12
 12.What are two examples of
predator responses?

 Predator adaptations include


stealth, camouflage, and ways to
avoid chemical repellents
Parasitism

 Parasites drain nutrients from their 

hosts and live on or in their bodies

 Natural selection favors parasites that 

do not kill their host too quickly
Types of Parasites

 Microparasites

 Macroparasites

 Social parasites
 Parasitoids
Social Parasites
Once limited to grasslands, brown - headed cowbirds have extended their range
to all 48 contiguous states and Canada. They are a major threat to
songbirds.

“Of 220 species known to have been


parasitized by Brown-headed Cowbirds,
and 144 have raised young Brown-headed Cowbirds successfully.”

http://www.birds.cornell.edu/bfl/speciesaccts/parasites.html
Chemical communication: Butterfly
anti-aphrodisiac lures parasitic
wasps
Male butterflies of the genus, Pieris, pass
an anti-aphrodisiac during mating to
females.
This chemical, benzyl cyanide, renders the
mated females less attractive to other
males.
This strategy tends to maximize the mating
males chances of getting their genes into
the next generation.
Or so it was thought….
The Wasp highjacks the Sexual
Communication Signal of the
Butterfly
The female wasps are attracted to the
anti-aphrodisiac of the mated female
butterflies.
Often they will hitch a ride on the
female butterfly.
When butterfly lays her eggs, the
wasp inserts her egg into the
butterfly egg.
The larval wasp eats its host alive.
A Serve Limitation on the Butterfly Populations

This parasitism constrains the butterfly


populations.
“If this fascinating strategy is wide spread in
nature, it could severely constrain the
evolution of
sexual communication
between hosts.”
The wasp is tiny (.5 mm).
It is located below the eye
Of the butterfly.
NATURE|VOL433|17 FEBRUARY 2005| page 704
Bloodsucking leech spends
month up Hong Kong hiker's
nose
HONG KONG (AFP) - A Hong Kong
woman hiker who washed her face in
a freshwater stream unwittingly
returned home with a leech
embedded in her left nostril.
“Doctors finally managed to remove it
using a nasal spray to anaesthetise
the five-centimetre-long (two-inch)
bloodsucker a month after it had
invaded her nostril.” 4/15/05
Question 13
 13. Name three types of parasites.
Answer 13
 13. Name three types of parasites.

 Microparasites
 Macroparasites
 Social parasites
 Parasitoids
Question 14
 14.Compare and contrast
parasitoids and social parasites.
Answer 14
 14. Compare and contrast parasitoids and
social parasites.

 Parasitoids lay their eggs in the body


of the host where they develop,
mature and eventually kill their hosts.
 Social parasites lay their eggs in their
host’s nest, where the host cares for
the young.
Succession

Change in the composition of species 
over time
Types of Succession

 Primary succession - new


environments
 Secondary succession -
communities were destroyed
or displaced
Species Introductions

 Introduction of a nonindigenous
species can decimate a community
 No natural enemies or controls
 Can outcompete native species
Pioneer Species

 Species that colonize barren habitats


 Lichens, small plants with brief life
cycles
 Improve conditions for other species
who then replace them
Climax Community
 Stable array of species that persists
relatively unchanged over time
 Succession does not always move
predictably toward a specific climax
community; other stable
communities may persist
Cyclic Changes
 Cyclic, nondirectional changes also
shape community structure
 Tree falls cause local patchiness in
tropical forests
 Fires periodically destroy underbrush
in sequoia forests
Restoration Ecology
 Natural restoration of a damaged
community can take a very long time
 Active restoration is an attempt to
reestablish biodiversity in an area
 Ecologists are actively working to
restore reefs, grasslands, and
wetlands
Community Instability

 Disturbances can cause a community 

to change in ways that persist even if 

the change is reversed
Species Introductions

 Introduction of a nonindigenous
species can decimate a community
 No natural enemies or controls
 Can outcompete native species
Exotic Species

 Species that has left its home range 

and become established elsewhere
 Becomes part of its new community

 Can have beneficial, neutral, or harmful 

effects on a community
Accidental Release….
 “The native distribution of the red lionfish is restricted to
appropriate reef habitats of the Indo-Pacific. Recently, a number
of specimens of red lionfish have been observed and/or captured
off the eastern coast of the United States in various locales from
Florida to New York. Its presence in these waters may stem
from the release of captive specimens along the southeast coast
of the United States.”

www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/RedLionfish/RLionfish.html
Predators in Paradise
EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK, Florida (CNN)
(10/22/04) -- A dangerous intruder has invaded
Everglades National Park, and it's putting the native
wildlife at risk.

Shirt of
missing
camper!
Python Invasion Spawns Cottage
Industry
 Python-Tracking Puppy Trains to
Patrol Everglades
 Stefan Lovgren
for National Geographic News
 February 3, 2005
 In their growing battle against giant
pythons that have invaded the Florida
Everglades, national park officials there
have recruited an unlikely ally: a beagle
puppy nicknamed "Python Pete."
Nile Monitors
 “Recently (Sept. 2005) a small
population of around 1000 Nile
Monitors have begun to rise in the
area around Cape Coral Florida. They
are most likely the offspring of a few
Monitors let free by local pet
owners.”
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_monitor
Wis. Residents Seek Legalized Cat Hunting
Feral cats, which volunteers have been feeding
for the past 10 years, feed in Anoka, Minn., Feb.
21, 2005. A new Wisconsin plan would declare
free-roaming wild cats an unprotected species,
just like skunks or gophers. Anyone with a small-
game license could shoot the cats at will, legally.
The proposal gets tested April 11 at the Wisconsin Conservation
Congress spring hearings, where outdoor enthusiasts gather in
every county to vote on hunting and fishing issues. (AP Photo/St. Paul
Pioneer Press, Joe Rossi)
Africanized Killer Flea Invasion
 ATLANTA—Panic is spreading among American dog
owners, following the Center for Veterinary Medicine's
Monday announcement that the arrival of a deadly mutant
strain of Africanized killer fleas is imminent.
Crossed Texas Border in 2004
Bred in Brazil at the Sao Paulo Animal Research
Facility in the late '60s, Ctenocephalides canis
africanus is a crossbreed of the common North
American flea and an African variant that infests
the tough hides of bull elephants. The Sao Paulo
entomologists never meant to release the mutant
fleas into the wild, but a 1974 fire at the lab led
to the dangerous subspecies' escape. In the past
30 years, Africanized fleas spread from Brazil to
South and Central America and on to Mexico.
Accidental Release….
 “The native distribution of the red lionfish is restricted to
appropriate reef habitats of the Indo-Pacific. Recently, a number
of specimens of red lionfish have been observed and/or captured
off the eastern coast of the United States in various locales from
Florida to New York. Its presence in these waters may stem
from the release of captive specimens along the southeast coast
of the United States.”

www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/RedLionfish/RLionfish.html
Endangered Species

A species that is extremely


vulnerable to extinction
 Close to 70 percent of endangered
species have been negatively
affected by exotic competitors
Nile Perch in East Africa
 Nile perch were introduced into Lake
Victoria as a food source
 This predator ate native cichlids;
drove many species to extinction
 Now Nile perch species is close to
crashing
Rabbits in Australia
 Rabbits were introduced for food and
hunting
 Without predators, their numbers
soared
 Attempts at control using fences or
viruses have thus far been
unsuccessful
Kudzu in Georgia
 Imported for erosion control
 Nonatural herbivores, pathogens, or
competitors
 Growsover landscapes and cannot
be dug up or burned out
 May
turn out to have some
commercial use
Poem About Kudzu by James
Dickey
 ALL: Kudzu
 Japan invades. Far Eastern vines
Run from the clay banks they are
 Supposed to keep from eroding.
Up telephone poles,
Which rear, half out of leafage
As though they would shriek,
Like things smothered by their own
Green, mindless, unkillable ghosts.
In Georgia, the legend says
That you must close your windows
 At night to keep it out of the house.
The glass is tinged with green, even so,
 As the tendrils crawl over the fields.
… and so on …

http://www.breakoutofthebox.com/kudzu.htm
Diversity by Latitude
 Diversity of most groups is greatest in 
tropics; declines toward poles

Ant 
diversity
Why Are Tropical
Species Rich?
 Resources are plentiful and reliable  

 Species diversity is self­reinforcing

 Rates of speciation are highest in the 

tropics
Distance Effect
 The farther an island is from a
mainland, the fewer species
 Closer islands receive more
immigrants
 Species that reach islands far from
mainland are adapted for long-
distance dispersal and can move on

You might also like