ARL 621 EKOLOGI LANSKAP

KORDINATOR: Prof. Dr. Ir. Hadi Susilo Arifin, MS. DOSEN ANGGOTA: Prof. Dr. Ir. Wahju Qamara Mugnisjah, M.Agr. Dr. Click to edit Master subtitle style Syartinilia, SP, MSi

BUKU RUJUKAN UTAMA: Forman, R.T.T. and M. Godron. 1986. Landscape Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 619p. 4/21/12

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FOREWORD PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PART I 1 2 PART II 3 4 5 6 PART III 7 8 9 10 11 12 OVERVIEW LANDSCAPE AND PRINCIPLES ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS IN BRIEF LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE PATCHES CORRIDORS MATRIX AND NETWORK OVERALL STRUCTURE LANDSCAPE DYNAMIC NATURAL PROCESSES IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT FLOWS BETWEEN ADJACENT LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS ANIMAL AND PLANT MOVEMENT ACROSS A LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE FUNCTIONING LANDSCAPE CHANGE

v vii xi 1 3 33 81 83 123 157 191 227 229 273 313 357 397 427 461 463 495 533 589 603

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART IV HETEROGENEITY AND MANAGEMENT 13 HETEROGENEITY AND TYPOLOGY 14 LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT REFERENCES GLOSSARY INDEX 4/21/12

WQM, 2012

WAHJU QAMARA MUGNISJAH

8 THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT

Click to edit Master subtitle style All art, all education, can be merely a supplement to nature (Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.)

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8. THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 MODIFICATION OF NATURAL RHYTHMS 8.1.1 Disturbance and Rhythms 8.1.2 Daily Rhythms 8.1.3 Seasonal Rhythms 8.1.4 Rhythms of Several Years or Centuries 8.2 METHODS OR TOOLS USED IN LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION 8.2.1 Natural Resource Extraction and Alteration 8.2.2 Introduction of Agricultural Methods 8.2.3 Decision Catalysts
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8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT

8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT 8.3.1 Natural Landscapes 8.3.2 Managed Landscapes 8.3.3 Cultivated Landscapes 8.3.3.1 The Development of Cultivation 8.3.3.2 The Development of Villages 8.3.3.3 Characteristics of Cultivated Landscapes 8.3.4 Suburban Landscapes 8.3.4.1 A Historical Overview of Cities 8.3.4.2 Characteristics of Suburbia 8.3.5 Urban Landscapes 8.3.5.1 Specialization 8.3.5.2 4/21/12 Writing

THE THREE BASIC SHAPES OF LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS (THE AREA CONCEPT)

Patch (1) a nonlinear surface area differing in appearance from its surrounding; (2) a spatially separate instance of a given type

of habitat

Patchiness a mosaic.

the density of patches, or the fineness of

Corridor (1) a narrow strip of habitat surrounded by habitats of different types; (2) a narrow strip of land that differs from the

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matrix

Figure 8.1 Mont Saint Michel, an island on the northern coast of France as seen when rapidly rising tides cover the adjoining mud flats.
q

Photograph of Mont Saint Michel: A geologist would see it as an erosional outlier, a remnant of a former plateau that later served to support some buildings. A landscape architect would see it as a fortified abbey, built about 1450, taking advantage of a readily defended site.
q

In a landscape with people, the human role and the role of nature may be alternatively emphasized but cannot be disentangled. To understand why a landscape looks as it does:

We cannot limit ourselves to the natural or physical environment.

v

We must also understandlive as a community in the service women (called nuns) human influences and 4/21/12 culture. of God

abbey = building(s) in which men (called monks) or

Most so-called natural ecosystems, and numerous species within them, have long been influenced by humans.

With the exponential growth in human population, ecosystems without this influence are increasingly scarce.

Rather than attempting to avoid human influences in ecology, or calling their study applied ecology, we must develop ecological principles based on the characteristics of most of the earth's ecosystems and species.

Such principles will be far more powerful and useful.

Nevertheless, rigor and caution are essential, because humans become simultaneously the 4/21/12 observers and the objects of study.

8.1.1 DISTURBANCE AND RHYTHMS

q

8.1 MODIFICATION OF NATURAL RHYTHMS

The horizontal structure of a landscape: When undisturbed tends to progress toward homogeneity. Moderate disturbance rapidly increases heterogeneity.
v

Severe Grain = natural arrangement of increase or disturbance may the lines of fibre in wood, etc. as seen on a surface decrease heterogeneity. that has been sawn 4/21/12 or cut

The most important ecological characteristic of a disturbance is its time lag or periodicity. When an environmental factor such as temperature, fire, or food supply oscillates with a regular rhythm, the genetic memory of organisms permits them to take note of the fluctuations. The species progressively adapt until, at some point, this factor can no longer be considered a disturbance.

For animals, the daily rhythm produces a series of waking and steeping periods.

Humans are so habituated to these that they suffer noticeably from disorientation of their biological clock when they cross several time zones in an airplane. 4/21/12

The contrast between day and night permits the plants alternate daytime photosynthesis and evapotranspiration with nighttime cell expansion. The annual seasonal cycle in the temperate zone:
launch

spring,

the explosion of annual plants in build the sustained greenery in

gradually

summer,

lead to
q

the decreas leaves in fall

a final dormancy in winter.

In climates with a severe dry season, where natural fires appear almost certain when biomass 4/21/12 reaches a certain level.

Periodic variations in the environment can be absorbed by organisms, thanks to their genetic memory. It effectively notes regular fluctuations and permits an adaptation through reproductive cycles. Unpredictable and infrequent variations are Figure 8.2 Waste material from strip disturbances, in the sense that they mining operations in La significantly alter the ecological system and Salle County, Illinois, result in a long recovery period. USA q These broad principles are recalled here, introducing a chapter on the influence of people, because human actions are sudden and unexpected in the scale of geological time. The period of human influence has been so brief that, in effect, other species have still not had time enough to adapt to it (Figure 8.2).

Confronted with the massive activities of humans, and not having sufficient time to "resist" by adaptation, many species risk disappearing. Alternatively, species may evolve by benefiting from human construction.

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8.1.2 DAILY RHYTHMS

q

To extend the daily temperature cycle, we construct greenhouses.

Their effect on the landscape is considerable

The other easily changed daily rhythm is the alternation of light and dark periods.

Elongating days with artificial lights increases the production of eggs and chickens. Elongating nights accelerates the fattening of hogs.

This type of modification is generally too localized to modify an entire landscape but it helps produce the large farmyards so distinctive and so repetitive.

These human struggles against a strong regular daily WQM: rhythm require a heavy investment in a nearly permanent Green house; vinyl house agricultural infrastructure that leaves a marked imprint on Phytotron; biotron the landscape. Photoperiodical alteration 4/21/12

8.1.3 SEASONAL RHYTHMS

The most spectacular revolution in human history arose from the idea of modifying natural seasonal rhythms. The change from the hunter-gatherer (Figure 8.3) to the cultivator-herder way of life near the end of the Paleolithic or Figure 8.3 Excavation of a Old Stone Age has resulted in the Paleolithic site beneath an transformation of more than three overhanging cliff. The Altiplano near Bogota, quarters of the global land surface. Colombia. The stockpiling of provisions to survive the difficult season was an even more basic revolution than the practice of seed planting for legumes and grain.

The establishment of permanent settlements, the domestication of ruminants, and cultivation are three convergent means to escape the constraints of seasonal rhythms.

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WQM: Agricultural landscape change in Cianjur JABAL system in Java

The principal object of plowing and working the soil is to modify the sequence of life cycle changes of perennial plant species In natural landscapes, a different set of species may be active and productive at each season.

CONTOH POLA TANAM PEKARANGAN LAHAN KERING BERIKLIM KERING (Deptrans-PPH, 1994)

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In the cultivated landscape, this sequence is replaced by a much A single species produces at a single moment of the year. more compact cycle. As a result, the landscape is transformed into a checkerboard on which each type of cultivation represents a square. This checkerboard of mixed plantings could be constructed at the scale of a field parcel, a farm, or an entire landscape. Ultimately, the landscape could appear as a monoculture, WQM: Yearly cropping are planted in which all the squares of the checkerboard system: rotation with the same Monoculture vs agroforestry/integrated farming system crop.
q

(agrosilvopasture; agrosilvofishery; SALT-1; SALT-2; SALT-3) Seed masting; defoliation;

The history of agriculture verifies this basic pattern of modifying seasonal rhythms.

The Age of Copper and the Age of Bronze (the first human cultural and technological phases with a widespread use of metal, about 3000-1200 b.c. in the Middle East, and about 1800-600 b.c. in China), before the advent of iron farm instruments, were characterized more by temporary burned patches for crops than by permanent agricultural clearing. Not until the Iron Age (characterized by widespread use of iron, beginning about 1200 b.c. in the Middle East and 600 b.c. in China), could the roots of herbaceous grasses readily be cut by rigid cutting tools. A bronze spade that twists is of limited agricultural use in digging up and turning over the dense tangle of roots of a mature grassland.

It was not until the iron hoe became widespread that the regular cultivation of grasslands or fallow fields became 4/21/12 possible.

In the case of livestock grazing, the transformation of the landscape by modification of the seasonal sequence is less evident, but all ranchers and farmers know that the rhythm of pasturing is the key to good management.

In general, overgrazing is basically the result of a poor seasonal or weekly distribution of livestock rather than an average excess of the total number of animals.

Irrigation is generally used, in climates with a very distinct seasonal rhythm, to compensate for the water deficit in the dry season.

The endless, monotonous appearance of the landscape in irrigated plains bears witness to the magnitude of investments needed to reduce the constraints of seasonal climatic cycles. each irrigated landscape the form of the canal

In 4/21/12

8.1.4 RHYTHMS OF SEVERAL YEARS OR

Seruu.com [19 Apr 2012] - Hutan rakyat (3 ha) terbakar di Dusun Nogosari, Desa Selopamioro, Kecamatan Imogiri, Kabupaten Bantul, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta

CENTURIES

In environments where fire is a natural factor that controls assemblages of animals and plants, fires appear at relatively regular intervalswhen the amount of combustible material builds up to the level where fire spreads easily. When humans intervene, they generally accelerate the cadence or frequency of fires. The clearest example is the tropical savanna in parts of Africa and South America, where millions of hectares are deliberately burned each year. In some areas, foresters Cadence = rhythm use control burns v to help manage the forest for wood products. These are intentional, controlled

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Management of European forests provides a significant example of the modification of century-long rhythms.

For example, the forest of Blois in the Loire Valley of France was oriented in the seventeenth century toward production of wood for the royal navy. It is still managed with a complete rotation of 240 years, giving the oaks fine-grained wood for producing deluxe furniture. This type of forest management produces a checkerboard of parcels usually of four identifiable types, by increasing age: (a) seedling brush, (b) sapling thicket, (c) pole stand, and (d) forest grove. Forests resulting from this process are very different from natural forests because woodcutters harvest some wood from the forest about every ten years. At each harvest the poorest growing trees are selected for removal, so the final forest grove is composed of beautiful, tall, productive trees that in turn giveby HPH Selected harvest rise to the following forest generation.

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Another influence of civilization at the century scale is the increase in the level of atmospheric CO2. This increase affects the entire biosphere and is linked to landscapes because it depends on the annual production and decomposition rhythms of ecosystems.

Deforestation of landscapes in the past two decades appears to be a particularly important factor in the overall CO2 increase.

WQM: Pembukaan hutan untuk daerah transmigrasi Banjir bandang vs kekeringan

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8.2 METHODS OR TOOLS USED IN LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION

q

We could spell out other widespread and long-term effects of human actions on landscapes, such as desertification, deforestation, and erosion. It is more interesting now, however, to explore how the methods or tools used by people affect the landscape.

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8.2.1 NATURAL RESOURCE EXTRACTION AND ALTERATION

q

Doubtless the first influence of prehistoric people was their predation on edible animals and plants.

This predation did not modify the landscape much more than that of chimpanzees.

Modification became somewhat more serious near the end of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) with the invention of the bow.

During this period, livestock and planted crops allowed some further increases in regular harvest production as well as in human population growth. However, domestication at its beginning probably had little genetic effect on the wild strains used.

The earth supported only a fewwood curved by a(estimates of million people tight string vBow = a piece of 2 to density shooting arrows. 4/21/1210 million) then, an average , used forof less than one

It was mainly by using fire that humans came to exert a major influence. Traces of human use of fire have been found in deposits more than 200,000 years old, such as those near Aix-en-Provence in southeastern France.

Throughout history, sailors who navigated along shores inhabited by Savages = wild, primitive; cruel or barbarous person "indigenous savages" have described 4/21/12

The extraction of minerals also transforms landscapes.

Quarries, sand and gravel extraction, open pit mines, and especially surface strip mining for coal and other mineral resources far exceed the abilities of the existing natural ecosystems to adjust and of their species to adapt. These pits and mining activities result in long-term marks on the landscape.
Quarries = place from which stone etc may be extracted
v

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Figure 8.5 Livestock as an introduced species bred and tended by humans.

8.2.2 INTRODUCTIO N OF AGRICULTURAL METHODS

q

The mechanical energy necessary for cultivation has produced a major effect on the landscape, especially the utilization of draft animals such as oxen and horses. This innovation has still not reached its peak. q The complex of species introductions and mechanical cultivating methods produces a human-driven process of landscape development
q

Innovation = a new technique or idea that causes a significant effect

v

Agriculture is not 4/21/12

Green revolution in Indonesia Environment degradation

Throughout the historical period, the techniques used to harvest the annual increment of livestock and crop productivity have become ever more powerful. Nevertheless, the rise in human population and the increasing use of fossil fuel are the two main factors in the increase in the amount extracted each year. The inputs of fertilizers and pesticides are also effectively inputs of energy. Their influence on landscapes is often as conspicuous as that of mechanization, because they lead to increasing homogeneity of cultivated parcels with few patches of weeds or parasites evident.

With these techniques, the long-term trade-off between higher crop productivity and soil erosion and impoverishment of the native biotabecomes increasingly clear. Despite the use of pesticides in many agricultural fields, pest explosions continue in landscapes. In some cases, the pests are both native species and nonnative ones.

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8.2.3 DECISION CATALYSTS

q

The tools used for constructing buildings and cities, as well as transportation and communication routes, are powerful and diverse.

How their effects in modifying landscapes. How political, economic, and social decisions affect the landscape.

Nearly all characteristics of landscape structure, functioning, and change operate at levels ofand are confined bypolitical, economic, and social forces.

In such cases, specific human decisions act as triggers or decision catalysts that may be transmitted to another landscape (or landscape element) by communication, and cause change 4/21/12

8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT

q

Human influences on landscapes are numerous and it is neither possible nor useful to consider each of these in isolation. A more promising approach is to consider the combined effects of all human influences on a landscape.

To do this, we can observe a gradient of landscape modification, extending from a natural landscape without significant human impact to an urban landscape (i.e. large city) -- and make historical observations, since each landscape is a product of its historical development. The natural landscape is in equilibrium with its (zonal) soil, while the city is the highest level of human-caused modification (or "artificialization") considered.

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In a highly diversified region, five primary landscape types will be discussed

1. Natural landscapewithout significant human impact 2. Managed landscapefor example, pasture land or forest, where native species are managed and harvested. 3. Cultivated landscapewith villages and patches of natural or managed ecosystems scattered within the predominant cultivation. 4. Suburban landscapea town and country area with a heterogeneous patchy mixture of residential areas, commercial centers, cropland, managed vegetation, and natural areas. 5. Urban landscapewith remnant managed park areas scattered in a densely built up matrix several kilometers across.
Figure 8.8 Corridors and other features changing along a landscape modification gradient. Landscape modification levels are: (?) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban. The matrix of a cultivated landscape is extensive where a single crop predominates, but low where a few crops predominate in similar proportions.

Figure 8.7 Patch characteristics changing along a landscape modification gradient. The landscape modification levels are (1) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban.

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q

We will concentrate on the horizontal structure of

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Figure 8.7 Patch characteristics changing along a landscape modification gradient. The landscape modification levels are (1) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4)

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Figure 8.8 Corridors and other features changing along a landscape modification gradient. Landscape modification levels are: (?) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4)

8.3.1 NATURAL LANDSCAPES

q

In the natural landscapes we see a highly connected matrix (Figure 8.6) surrounding a relatively low density of natural patches and corridors. The grain of the landscape is usually rather coarse, and in many cases boundaries between landscape elements are indistinct.

Most patches are environmental resource patches resulting from spatial variations in physical factors, but The few corridors present are almost always stream disturbance-caused patches are also corridors (Figure 8.8). present (Figure 8.7). In flat areas, boundaries between landscape elements are commonly parallel to topographic contours, while on slopes their limits are often linked to the depth of soil or water table, resulting in an inter-digitating pattern of the vegetation. In either case, boundaries are highly curved and rarely vNatural landscape straight. Average patch size is = An area where human effects, if large, but more striking is 4/21/12 the high present, are in patch size. significant to the landscape as variability not ecologically

Figure 8.6 A highly connected rain forest matrix contrasted with a river corridor and agricultural patches.

Biomass, or potential energy accumulated by the vegetation, is almost always at its maximum.

The rate of photosynthesis is high, but because so much energy is required to support the large biomass, and because decomposers are actively breaking down biomass, the net production available for sustained human harvest is minimal (without significantly changing the landscape). Nutrient runoff to streams is present but generally small. Species diversity is generally high and (in some natural landscapes) extremely rich.

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The colonization of natural landscapes may involve nomadic grazing of livestock or the establishment of scattered clearings for cultivation (Figure 8.6). In either case, corridor and patch density increases and matrix connectivity decreases. The major consequence of these new landscape elements is that they serve as nuclei for the spreading of people and tools into the natural matrix of the landscape. Livestock, domestic animals, introduced plants, and people can move readily into the immediate surrounding area that had previously been remote. The other side of results, of course, is that those native animals that require 4/21/12 remoteness or large tracts of undisturbed
q

8.3.2 MANAGED LANDSCAPE

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Major changes appear as we observe the Figure 8.9 Geometrization managed introduced into a managed range/and landscape near Crystal, Idaho (United landscape States). (pastureland, rangeland, or Managed landscape = A landscape, such as rangeland forests harvested or forest, where native species are
v

harvested

Average net production for the whole landscape is positive, with patchy harvests, reflecting the locations of settlements. Harvest patterns also vary temporally, taking place annually in the case of sheep, for example, or at several-decade intervals in the case of may be Mineral nutrient cycles wood products. extensively disturbed as a result of widespread management and harvest activities along with the cumulative localized effects of clearings, hamlets, and roads. After logging, for example, mineral nutrient losses from an ecosystem typically increase sharply, and then soon drop as vegetative regrowth accelerates. However, if regrowth is inhibited for a period by disturbance, large mineral nutrient losses, especially of nitrate, can be expected (Figure 8.10). 4/21/12
Figure 8.10 Dissolved ions leaching out of undisturbed (a) versus disturbed (b) forest ecosystems. Disturbance in these three forests of southern Indiana (United states) is a root trenching technique with prevention of vegetation

Figure 8.10 Dissolved ions leaching out of undisturbed (a) versus disturbed (b) forest ecosystems. Disturbance in these three forests of southern Indiana (United states) is a root 4/21/12 trenching technique with prevention of vegetation regrowth.

Species diversity in managed landscapes may increase or decrease.

Perhaps often the number of native species that disappear is greater than the number of nonnative species that are introduced in patches across the landscape. Even more striking is the relative homogenization of the matrix.

While some native species, especially among the vertebrates, become rare, 4/21/12

8.3.3 CULTIVATED LANDSCAPES

8.3.3.1 The Development of Cultivation

In flat temperate areas of Europe, agriculture developed and deciduous forest was removed. By late in the Iron Age (1250 to 1400 a.d.) , a so-called open-field landscape (Figure 8.11) had formed along with a social system that directly controlled land use practices. Extensive plains were often totally cultivated and typically underwent a system of three-field rotation.

While one field was in winter wheat, one would be in summer grain, and one in fallowthat is, abandoned to natural vegetation, v Cultivated landscape = A landscape dominated by soil refertilization, and often a few livestock.
plow land for crops, but ussually with patches of natural and managed land present

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The land around a village was divided into three relatively large homogeneous sections that were rotated nearly every year.

A new section could be in fallow to prevent soil depletion, while in the other sections all the farmers had to work together to produce the same crop, and then cattle and sheep were permitted to graze those sections.

The next phase took place when a network of hedgerows was constructed to form enclosures for pastures or cultivation.

The establishment of enclosed fields that began to develop around the end of the fourteenth century was linked to an increase in livestock. The grazing of livestock was widespread and even high elevation parcels were carved out of the forest for enclosures. in Yearly cropping pattern

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the spread of Agricultural land use in Sundanese: the 4/21/12 field enclosures was accompanied, progressively, by pekarangan dan talun the cultivation of crops such as peas, beans, clover,

Indonesia: IFS

The rural agricultural system functioned in this manner in all middle European countries up to the nineteenth century. Extensive hedgerow removal then occurred in many of the open plain areas. Although traces of the former enclosure landscapes remain, today's plains have much larger fields and fewer hedgerows, as a consequence of the mechanization of farming.

Agricultural systems can be quite stable in human hands, as those of plains in Europe and the Ukraine.

Agricultural systems on plains, however, remain particularly subject to the hazards of geopolitics. There are numerous examples that have been ravaged or altered to become deserts.
Agricultural land conversion Recent trend to sustainable agricultural system

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8.3.3.2 The Development of Villages

A village is a cluster of homes in a rural area, somewhat larger than a hamlet, that includes at least one common building or a market place.

The location of a village usually has to do with the presence of particular necessities such as access to well water or defense against ravaging during insecure periods (Figure 8.12). By the late Paleolithic, about 6000 b.c., a village was already installed at the "Iron Gates" site by the Danube River in Yugoslavia. In the Middle East, many traces of villages have been discovered that date to the second half of the fifth millennium b.c. (e.g., Tell Massuna in Mesopotamia, v Rural = in, of, characteristic of, Iran). Saktchegozou in Syria, and Sialk in northwestern suitable Egyptian sites apparently were still hamlets in the fourth millennium b.c.
for, the country (opp. of urban)

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Villages, of course, do not represent a landscape by themselves but rather represent a new type of landscape element.

A village may be linear in shape (Figure 8.12), as is Marschufendorf today in Germany, for example, and the many settlements called "rangs" that line country roads in Quebec. However, most villages are somewhat circular as a result of a physical or social constraint, such as a fortified site or the hub of an open-field agricultural area. Villages may also be a loose cluster of hamlets, often connected by a hedgerow network.
Figure 8.12 Linear village developed in a gorge for a religious community dating to the tenth century a.d. St. Cuilhem le Desert, Gorge = narrow Languedoc, with opening, usu. southern ,France. a stream between
v

Whatever shape they have, villages cause

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an increase in the number of patches present in a landscape,

hills or mountains

This type of rural landscape with a village structure can be very stable and persist over several centuries or even millennia, as has been the case in Numidia and Switzerland.

Ecological catastrophes such as floods, salinization of irrigated land (Jacobsen and Adams, 1958), and loss of fertility, as well as economic or military setbacks, can cause a long-term loss of the village structure from a landscape.

It is recognized that a large number of widespread or "cosmopolitan" species "follow" human aggregations around the world. Several of such species are particularly abundant in villages and may be called village species.

Village species provide ecological repeatability to the village landscape elements scattered across a rural landscape.

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A modification or extension of the village role in the landscape can be seen today in some landscapes in socialist and other countries where collectives have been built in the rural landscape.

8.3.3.3 Characteristics of Cultivated Landscapes

Agricultural development of a landscape usually progresses through three stages.

1. Traditional agriculture: a somewhat heterogeneous fine-grained matrix with scattered, irregularly-shaped field patchesthat have just been cultivatednext to grazed fallow patches. 2. Combined traditional and modern agriculture: similar except with wide, persistent, homogeneous patches on the best soils. 3. Modern agriculture with remnants of traditional agriculture: a matrix of large persistent homogeneous parcels with scattered patches of traditional agriculture and remnant natural patches.

The most general characteristic of the cultivated landscape is that geometrizationthe formation of linear and polygonal featureshas been imposed on it, and 4/21/12 straight lines are visible throughout.

The characteristics of the cultivated landscape based on the three basic shapes of landscape elements (area concept)

Stream corridors are often destroyed, and fewer remain (Figure 8.13), while line corridors that connect villages or are used in cultivation and harvest are widespread (Figure 8.8). Corridor networks are usually conspicuous and predominant, and so matrix connectivity is low. If a single crop is prevalent, the matrix covers a large portion of the landscape area. In the case of a few major

Intensive cultivation that nearly eliminates a stream corridor. The result is high levels of nutrient loss, stream bank erosion, flooding, stream sedimentation, water temperature, and fish disappearance.

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Compared with managed landscapes, in cultivated landscapes:

Patch density increases, Variability in patch size decreases (Figure 8.7). A marked shift in the causes of the patches emerges. Fewer disturbance patches and more introduced cultivated patches are evident, More remnant patches appear as the natural Managed vegetation is cut into increasingly fine residual parcels.

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8.3.4 SUBURBAN LANDSCAPES

q

Suburbs are the most heterogeneous and least ecologically understood landscapes. Since they develop around and are linked to cities, we must begin by considering urbanization. Urban landscapes have always been highly varied, undoubtedly because cities assume several major functions.

Suburb = outlying district of a town or a city v The suburbs = all these districts collectively v Suburban = of or in a subsuburb v Suburban landscape = A town and country area with a heterogenous patchy mixture of residential areas, commercial centers, cropland, managed vegetation, and natural areas
v

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8.3.4.1 A Historical Overview of Cities

The oldest town site known today is Jericho, founded in the late Paleolithic around 6000 b.c., in the Middle East. The first city-states of the Sumerian civilization were also holy cities. The Sumerian civilization had four-sided pyramids with five levels. The oldest known sanctuary (about 3700 b.c.?) was found at Eridou near the gulf between Iran and Saudi Arabia. The landscapes of Mesopotamia (now primarily Iraq) were dominated by rounded pyramids with exterior staircases (ziggurats). At Our (Ur), which dates to the third millennium b.c., trees and shrubs formed an island of protective shadeor a sacred wood on the highest level of the pyramid. In the eighth century b.c. at the same site (then called Assour), Sennacherib (landscape architects or botanists) built a sort of botanical garden, covering local species, as well as those from territories to the north, the east, and the Mediterranean shores.

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The combination of architecture and plants reached its zenith in the suspended gardens of Babylon.

The gardens were almost certainly constructed by Nebuchadnezzar II (604 to 561 b.c.) and were to have been dedicated to Amouhid, daughter of King Midas, who languished for the green forests of her childhood. These gardens, 120m on a side, had the form of an amphitheater and were bounded by exterior colonnades 25 m high. Trees 4 m in circumference and 60 m high were reported to grow there.

Three wells were found in the center of the suspended gardens during excavations. The 4/21/12 water was originally brought up to the summit

Egypt is no longer considered the sole progenitor of urban civilizations but it played a key role in the development of the city form.

Around the beginning of the third millennium b.c., the peoples of Upper Egypt near the Nile and Lower Egypt accepted a common sovereign, Menes, who initiated an architecture of a gradiose scale. The terraced 60 m pyramid of Djeser dates from just before 2600 B.C. The great pyramids and the Sphynx (built during the fourth dynasty, 2600-2480 b.c.) attained a maximum height of 146 mas high as the much later Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome.

These brief examples of landscape development in Mesopotamia and Egypt illustrate the process of sequent occupance.

This term refers to the landscape changes produced vSovereign = supreme ruler, when a sequence of different cultures occupies theesp. a same monarch area. 4/21/12
Gradiose = ?

Similar trends doubtless took place in other parts of the world.

The early Chinese town Liang Chengzhen, dating to about 3500 B.C.), whereas astronomy (or geomancy) may also have played a role in the design of some cities. The Greek name for townpolisexpresses the idea that there politics, the process of governing, came into being (Plato, 428348 b.c. The Republic). The politically powerful almost inevitably made their role sacred and erected monumental buildings that reflected a new holy or religious mentality. The large cathedrals of Europe, the Mayan temples (Figure 8.15a), the forbidden city of Peking, and the sacred steps of Benares along the River Ganges in India all are sacred monuments. In modern times, political power is manifested directly in the buildings that symbolize governmentgovernment monuments such as the Kremlin (Figure 8.15b), Versailles, the Hofburg Imperial Palace, and the Capitol in Washington.

Construction now is focused more on "temples to a new god, moneythat is, financial monuments, including skyscrapers like 4/21/12

8.3.4.2 Characteristics of Suburbia

The characteristics of the suburban landscape based on the three basic shapes of landscape elements (area concept) (Figure 8.16).

Line corridors and networks continue to increase, while stream corridors decrease (Figure 8.8). Matrix area and connectivity are minimal. Patchiness is nearly at its maximum in the suburban landscape (Figure 8.7). landscape elements is very

Figure 8.16 New housing developments and woodland corridors in a suburban landscape. Undeveloped areas in suburbia are usually under enormous competing land-use pressures, including shopping, industrial, housing, waste disposal, and nature reserve interests.

The richness of types of 4/21/12

Average net productivity for the landscape is always patchy and often low. In the face of increasing human population pressure, cultivated fields and managed remnant patches in suburban landscape may soon be gobbled up for other land uses (Figure 8.16). The suburban landscape has a special kind of dynamics since it continues to creep outward from cities, maintaining a consistent form. Mineral nutrient cycling in suburban landscapes is essentially unstudied and difficult to characterize because of the extreme landscape heterogeneity. q Species diversity is high, perhaps usually greater than that of the natural landscape. Many species characteristic of natural and cultivated landscapes are present overall. The plants and animals from nurseries, florists, and pet stores that are associated with human aggregations are also a large source of species richness. Only some of these species can successfully colonize the more natural portions of the suburban landscape, but v those that doGobble become significant pests. greedily often up = eat (up) fast, noisy, and 4/21/12 v Creep = move along with the body close to the ground In the built-up portions of the landscape a large biota of
q

8.3.5 URBAN LANDSCAPES

q

Cities are a type of organization totally different from the late Paleolithic encampments and hamlets. The development of hamlet into city occurred when a relatively unorganized homogeneous ensemble transforms itself into an organizedcamp Encamp = settled in a Ensemble = a thing view as the structure that cycles objects,sum of its parts Urban = of or in a town information, and energy within itself Urbanize = change from a rural to an urban character
v v v v v

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Urban Landscape = A landscape with a densely built-up matrixs

8.3.5.1 Specialization
A city has a large human population and functions by having a series of specialized objects flow through a network. A primary difference between a city and a group of huts is that in a city people have specialized or diversified roles.

v v v

In villages ofHut = small simple the Arctic, or shelter Eskimos in or crude house Indians of the Matto GrassoworkerBlacksmith = ? Artisan = skilled manual in Brazil, or ceaftsman and Aborigines of central Australia, each 4/21/12

8.3.5.2 Writing
The above vision of the birth of cities is reinforced by a remarkable concurrent event.

Writing was born when cities appeared. The origins of these two revolutionary developments were not unrelated. Traces of the first of many writings have been found at Ourouk in Sumeria along the Euphrates River. These texts of commercial dealings and inventories are preceded only by trading chips or stones from the late Paleolithic.

Scholarly classes arose along with the erection of sanctuaries and the origin of holy cities in this epoch.

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In this manner Mexico City was organized disk to carry clay v Potters wheel = horizontal revolving around the temples of the Sun and the Moon, and remained moulding during so as v Mould = make (an object) in a required shape or from certain late as 1525 when the Spanish soldiers arrived.
ingredients

8.3.5.3 Urban Structure and Function

Figure 8.17 Circulatory The city has a network underpinning the urban block or patch network of structure. Each block is unique and depends on the circulatory inputs from, and outputs to, the particular circulatory structures wherein configuration surrounding it. the exchanges occur (Figure Pave = cover (a street, floor, etc.) with a durable 8.17). surface
v v

The circulation routes or streets, 4/21/12

Sewer = conduit, usu. undergound, for carrying off drainage water and sewage v Conduit = channel or pipe conveying liquids v Underpin = support, sthrengthen

The urban structures that result from this functioning seem to some designers analogous to biological structures. The architect Saarinen (1965) suggests that the physical order of urban communities compares fundamentally to the organic order of organisms. Doxiadis (1968) hypothesizes that with; all Indispensable = that cannot be dispensed necessary. human settlements are composed
v v

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Dispend = deal out

of four indispensable elementsnature,

Urban landscapes are largely composed of two general types of landscape elements, streets and city blocks, with a scattering of parks and other uncommon landscape features. Districts, distinctive groupings of these landscape elements, are usually evident and not uniformly distributed, as illustrated in the following three models of urban spatial structure.

In the concentric zone model, the sequence of districts surrounding a central business district is similar in all directions (Figure 8.18a).

In the wedge-shaped sector model, a particular type of district, often extends from the central business district to the city limit, so different sides of the city have different districts (Figure 8.18b). 4/21/12

Figure 8.18 Three patterns of urban spatial structure

Such differing spatial patterns result

partially from the underlying geomorphic configuration, but primarily from the cultural characteristics and the political system.

Hence, the present pattern reflects any previous imprint or plan ranging from, for example, the routes chosen by cows (some claim) before Boston arose, to the highly planned city of Brasilia.

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8.3.5.4 Ecology of the Modern City

Relatively few animal and plant species thrive and reproduce in the modern city.

The biological system is totally polarized around the needs of the human species. While unplanned assemblages of species always exist Thrive = grow strong and healthy in the city, artificial communities of = ? Depauperate Biophilia affinity and need for plants plants and animals=are constructed and animals Conduit = channel or pipe conveying liquids 4/21/12a depauperate symbol or reminder as Underpin = support, sthrengthen
v v v v v

By the year 2000, UNESCO estimates that three billion people will have squeezed in around urban zones.

Most of these inhabitants will be in 60 cities of more than five million people, 47 of which will be in the developing nations. Thus, urban landscapes are rapidly increasing in number, and unique circulation and structural patterns are emerging for each.

Characteristics or urban landscape:

an extensive corridor network of streets perforates the urban landscape, producing a tremendous density of tiny equal-sized introduced patches (Figure 8.17); all other patch and corridor types are at a minimum (Figures 8.7 and 8.8);
v

those that remain, such as the occasional stream v Exert = bring to bear, use (a quality, force, corridor, urban woodlot, golf course, or cemetery are etc) influence, 4/21/12 conspicuous vand of exceptional importance to the biota. Conspicuous = easily seen; attracting attention;

Squeeze = exert pressure on

Average net productivity for the landscape is negative, as the entire ecosystem is fundamentally based on massive imports of plant and animal food.
o

Inputs include sunlight, water, fuel, food, manufactured goods, and atmospheric deposits usually containing high pollutant levels. Outputs include sewage, solid wastes, water, heat, and various pollutants.

Species diversity of most animal and plant groups is low, although in spots it may be relatively high where nonnative species are abundant. The city is two ecological systems, spatially superimposed but with generally minor linkages.
o

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The primary productivity of the city grass, trees, and other plants supports a rather simplified trophic structure that involves a few herbivores or carnivores such as squirrels and birds.

8.3.6 THE MEGALOPOLIS The magnitude of inputs and outputs and of services within a city cannot increase indefinitely without creating problems. The following activities disrupt the urban ecological system effectively, rapidly, and critically:

severe drought spells, disruptions in the availability of oil, coal, and electricity, air pollution build-ups, military attacks, and strikes of truckers, railroaders, waste disposal workers, and sewage treatment personnel.

landscapes that serve different major functions, The 4/21/12larger the magnitudes suburban, and outputs of increasing i.e. city and of inputs as a result of relative to

The political system responds to disruption in varying degrees of rapidityv and effectiveness. Megalopolis is the tying together of two unlike

An alternative to indefinite urbanization, where a city continues to spread in all directions, is megalopolization. The end product of this process is an enormous suburban landscape, on an order of magnitude larger than before, within which cities are scattered. The smaller city centers are simply a distinctive type of landscape element within suburbia. The large cities, as nuclei giving rise to megalopolization, are urban landscapes in their own right and are surrounded by the gigantic suburban landscape.

Megalopolization = the process of forming a number of cities surrounded by suburbia.

v

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The two types of landscapes within the megalopolis are tightly bound together.

For example: flows of commuters, information, and pollutants between the landscapes are extensive. Thus, the megalopolis appears to be a distinctive point along the gradient of concentrating and specializing human processes that began with scattered homes and hamlets.

Characteristics of megalopolis

The megalopolis is anything but the pinnacle of stability. With its enormous inputs and outputs, the megalopolis is more dependent than ever on other landscapes. Massive amounts of fossil fuel sustain the megalopolis. In its unique political system, many governmental bodies v Pinnacle = culmination or climax (most of which are in competition) make decisions.

4/21/12 Hence, responses to or recovery from disruption are

One worries about the risk of a degeneration. The ultimate point in the aggregation process has been termed an "ecumenopolis" or "planetopolis," or world city. These ideas seem to be academic exercises in planning without the constraints of universal ecological principles.

An ecumenopolis (pl. ecumenopoleis) was a type of planet, or in some cases a moon, whose entire surface was covered with a single worldwide city ( http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Ecumenopolis [18 Apr 2012])
v

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SUMMARY

Human influences (except where extremely heavy) increase landscape heterogeneity in three primary ways.

First, rhythms of natural disturbances, ranging from one day to a few centuries long, are modified through agricultural and forestry practices. Second, the methods of landscape modificationfor example, extracting renewable resources, developing agriculture, and constructing buildings and communication routeshave increased in number and effectiveness. Such methods range from early hunting and use of fire to modern machinery and chemical inputs.

Third, the aggregation process, from hamlets to cities, is related to the centralization of necessities, the diversification or specialization of human roles, the construction of sacred and other monuments, and the 4/21/12 development of politics.

SUMMARY

In the cultivated landscape, two prominent features are geometrization and the abundance of villages that develop where special resources exist.

Villages contain characteristic species and serve as nuclei for effects on the landscape. The megalopolis is composed of two linked landscapes, the urban and the suburban, with huge inputs, outputs, and internal cycling. It is subject to many disturbances and has a relatively ineffective political system to respond to the disturbances.

When each of the structural characteristics of landscapes is separately examined along a human modification gradient from natural to urban, patterns emerge.

Introduced patches increase, whereas disturbance and environmental resource patches decrease. Patch density and regularity in shape increase, whereas patch size and variability decrease.

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QUESTIONS
1.

How is it that a particular environmental change is a disturbance in one landscape but not in another? To back up your answer, cite and explain examples of two quite different types of natural environmental changes. When were the various human cultural and technological phases? How did humans affect landscapes during each phase? Does altering the periodicity of natural rhythms produce minor or major effects on a landscape? Why? Is it possible for a particular type of human influence to alter natural rhythms of different lengths? Explain. Describe, in the order of their introduction, the major types of agricultural methods that have changed landscapes over time. How do patch origins change along a landscape modification gradient? How about average patch sizes and shapes? How do corridor types change along a landscape modification gradient? How would a geographer describe the patterns of geometrization along the gradient? How does net production change along a landscape modification gradient? How do mineral nutrient outputs change? What characteristics differentiate a hamlet, a village, a city, and a megalopolis? What changes in species diversity and composition take place in proceeding from a natural to a managed landscape? In what order? What major recommendations can you make for biological conservation in this process? 4/21/12

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