SAB 2712 GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

Click to Hj. Edy Tonnizam Hj. Prof Madya Dr.edit Master subtitle style Mohamad D03-223/07-5531767 edy@utm.my 019-7172167

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Earth 4.5 billion years Origin of universe 14 billion years No water / oxygen Crust due to cooling Dinasour died 65 million years ago Luis Alvarez

Earth structure

Crust (10 70km): divided into oceanic and continental crust. Low density. Silicon-oxygen based. Mantle (2880 3200km): consists of layers of dense rocks (olivine & basalt). Temperature within mantle is about 30000C, thus materials may be in the form of liquid. Silicon-oxygen + iron + magnesium. Density of uppermost peridotite 3.3 g/cm3. Core (3480 km): Most dense. Consists of iron nikel alloy. Average density 11g/cm3. Temperature may exceeds 40000C.

The top layer is called the crust. Oceanic crust is thinner and denser than continental crust. Oceanic crust is more active than continental crust. Under the crust is the rocky mantle, which is composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium, iron, aluminum, and calcium. The asthenosphere is a part of the upper mantle that exhibits plastic properties. It is located below the lithosphere, between about 100 and 250 kilometers deep

Plate Tectonics
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Earth's outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces called plates. The place where the two plates meet is called a plate boundary.

VOLCANOLOG Y

Click to edit Master subtitle style DEFINITION : Volcanology is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma and related to the geological phenomena. The term of volcanology is derived from the latin word, Vulcan, the Roman God of fire.

Lava fountains (5&shyp;10 m high) spouting from eruptive fissures during the October 1980 eruption of Krafla Volcano.

WHAT IS VOLCANO??

Volcanic action is clearly related to the existence of hot springs and zones of high heat flow that exist well below the earth surface. Heat is generated in the earths core by nuclear process. It is carried up from the core to the upper layers nearer the surface by complex convection current. Then heating from below causes mantle and crustal rock become soften and melt

MAGMA

molten material that is still in the earth and which has not yet been ejected to the surface. The chemical composition of the magma largely determines the eruptive behavior of a volcano. Magma which is composed of mantle rock has little dissolved gas. This type of magma erupts as a relatively placid viscous liquid (lava), flows smoothly if sufficiently hot and freezes into a black rock called basalt.

EXSOLUTION SURFACE occurs in the magma reservoir beneath the volcano. It separates a zone of magma containing dissolved volatiles from an overlying zone of magma containing exsolved gas bubbles FRAGMENTATION SURFACE occurs at the top of the magma column. It separates the zone of magma containing exsolved gas from the overlying eruption column. Fragmentation of the magma is generated by rapid gas expansion and bubble explosion.

Plate tectonics is a gradual movement of crustal plate on the surface of the earth. In certain regions, 2 plates move apart creating a rift, where volcanic magma can erupt (pacific ocean,hawaiian island). In other case, 2 plates crush together and raising huge mountain ranges (Himalaya of Asia, Alps of Europe). Subduction the plate being subducted gradually bends downward & plunges into the earth where it eventually encounters sufficient heat to soften & melt.

Volcanology
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Gunung Merapi

PHYSIOGRAPHY BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1883 ERUPTION The pre-eruption island of Kratatau was composed of three coalsced volcanoes aligned along a north-northwest direction, parallel to the volcanoes on Sumatra. From north to south, these were Perboewatan, Danan, and Rakata.

During the eruption, Perboewatan, Danan, and the northern half of Rakata appear to have collapsed into the vacating magma chamber, thus forming a submarine caldera and destroying the northern two-thirds of the island. Eruptions since 1927 have built a new cone called Anak Krakatau ("child of Krakatau") in the center of the 1883

Karakatau

The dynamic earth

The earth is a dynamic planet. The earth surface today was dramatically different from 4.6 bil years ago. The process of altering the earths surface: - gradation. - volcanism. - tectonism.

The dynamic earth Gradation process: erosion & deposition slow rate. - Agent: atmosphere, water, wind & snow. - When rate of deposition is higher than erosion, deposits of erosion material will happened or reflects.
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Volcanism refers to the volcanic activity. source: earth internal heat (magma & lava flow). create igneous & metamorphic rock, volcanic structure
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The dynamic earth

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Tectonics: movement of earths crust (start 1960s)- sea floor spreading and continental drifting. Plate tectonic theory earths rigid at the outer shell, lithosphere is broken into several pieces (plate). Plate driven (in motion) by thermal engine result of unequal distribution of internal heat. Generate earthquake, volcanic activity & mountain.

The dynamic earth Types of movement: - Divergent boundaries: zones where plates move apart, leaving gap between them. - Convergent boundaries: zones where plates move together, causing one to go beneath the other, as happens when oceanic crust is involved; or where plates collide, which occurs when the leading edges are made of continental crust. - Transform fault boundaries: zones where plates slide past each other, scraping & deforming as they past.
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Divergent Boundaries
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Places where plates are pulling apart are called divergent boundaries When the lithosphere is pulled apart, it typically breaks along parallel faults that tilt slightly outward from each other. As the plates separate along the boundary, the block between the faults cracks and drops down into the soft, plastic interior (the asthenosphere). The sinking of the block forms a central valley called a rift. Magma (liquid rock) seeps upward to fill the cracks. New crust is formed along the boundary. Earthquakes occur along the faults, and volcanoes form where the magma reaches the surface.

This is an example of a divergent plate boundary. The mid-Atlantic Ridge is an area where new sea floor is being created. As the rift valley expands, two continental plates have been constructed from the original one. The molten rock continues to push the crust apart creating new crust as it does. As the rift valley expands, water collects forming a sea.

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is now 2,000 metres above the adjacent sea floor, which is at a depth of about 6,000 metres below sea level.

The sea floor continues to spread and the plates get bigger and bigger.

Sea floor spreading

5cm per year

Ocean ridges

Convergent Boundaries
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Places where plates crash or crunch together are called convergent boundaries. When two plates collide , some crust is destroyed in the impact and the plates become smaller. Oceanic Plate and Continental Plate When a thin, dense oceanic plate collides with a relatively light, thick continental plate, the oceanic plate is forced under the continental plate. This phenomenon is called subduction.

Two Oceanic Plates When two oceanic plates collide, one may be pushed under the other and magma from the mantle rises, forming volcanoes in the vicinity. Two Continental Plates When two continental plates collide, mountain ranges are created as the colliding crust is compressed and pushed upwards.

Subduction zone

Tectonic collision

Fault

Fault

Tsunami

The convergence of the Nazca and South American Plates has deformed and pushed up limestone strata to form towering peaks of the Andes

Transform Boundaries
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When two plates move sideways against each other, there is a tremendous amount of friction which makes the movement jerky. The plates slip, then stick as the friction and pressure build up to incredible levels. When the pressure is released suddenly, and the plates suddenly jerk apart, this is an earthquake.

Aerial view of the San Andreas fault slicing through the Carrizo Plain in the Temblor Range east of the city of San Luis Obispo.

Three types of plate boundary

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Divergent boundaries Convergent boundaries Transform boundaries

Fossil Evidence in Support of the Theory

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Eduard Suess was an Austrian geologist who first realized that there had once been a land bridge between South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He named this large land mass Gondwanaland (named after a district in India where the fossil plant Glossopteris was found). He based his deductions on the plant Glossopteris, which is found throughout India, South America, southern Africa, Australia, and

The jigsaw puzzle

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On the earths crust are continental mass, continental shelf & ocean basin. The present continents (e.g. Europe, Australia & Africa) originate from one big piece continent - Gondwanaland. The dynamic position (floating) of the earths crust on the partly liquid & melting mantle, had broken the crust into several pieces & formed the presence continents.