Background and preview

Contents
1. The Communications 2. 6. Modulation Process

3.
4.

5.

Process Primary Communication Resources Sources of Information Communication Networks Communication Channels

7. Analog and Digital

Types of Communication 8. Shannons Information Capacity Theorem 9. A Digital Communication Problem 10. Historical Notes

Communications
1. Daily lives 6. Communications

2. Telephones, radios

and televisions 3. Computers terminals with acces to the internet 4. Newspapers 5. Ships, aircraft, rockets and satellites in space

through a wireless 7. Communications keeps a weathers forecaster informed of conditions measured by a multitude of sensors. 8. The list of application is almost endless

The Communications Process

1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

The generation of a message signal: voice, music, picture, or computer data The description of that message signal with a certain measure of precision, by a set of symbols: electrical, aural, or visual. The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over a physical medium of interest The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination The decoding and reproduction of the original symbols The re-creation of the original mesage signal, with a definable degradation in quality: the degradation is caused by imperfections in the system

Two Basic modes of communication

1. Broadcasting, which involves the used

of single powerful transmitter and numerous receivers that are relatively inexpensive to build. 2. Point-to-point communications, in which the communication process takes places over a link between a single transmitter and a receiver.

Elements of communication system

Communication System

Source of information

Transmitter

Receiver

User of information

Messages signal

Estimate of message signal

Channel
Transmitted signal

Received signal

Primary Communication Resources

1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

Transmitted power, is the average power of the transmitted signal. Channel bandwidth, is the band of frequencies allocated for the transmission of the message signal The average voice spectrum extend beyond 10 kHz, though most of the average power is concentrated in the range of 100 to 600 Hz, and a band from 300 to 3100 Hz gives good articulation Noise refers to unwanted waves that tend to disturb the transmission and processing of message signals in a comunications system Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the average signal power to the average noise power, measured in the same point, express in dBs.

Sources of Information
1. A source of information (Speech,

Music, Pictures, Computer data) may be characterized in terms of the signal that cariers the information. 2. A signal is defined as a single-valued function of time that plays the role of the independent variable; at every instant of time, the function has a unique value.

Speech
Is the primary method of human communication. Specifically, the process involves the transfer of information from a speaker to a listener, in three successive stages: 1. Production, in the speakers mind: speech signal. 2. Propagation, through the air at a speed 300m/s 3. Perception, incoming sound: received message

Music
1. Originates from instruments such as the

piano, violin, and flute. 2. A melodie structure consisting of a time sequence of sounds 3. A harmonic structure consisting of a set of simultaneous sounds 4. Musical signal demand a much wider channel bandwidth than speech signal for their transmission

Pictures
1. Relies on human visual system for its

perception, can be dynamic (TV) or static (facsimile) 2. The pictures in motion are converted into electrical signals to facilitate their transport from the transmitter to the receiver. To do so, each complete picture is sequentially scanned, carried out in a TV camera. 3. In color TV, the perception of color is based on the three types of color receptor in the humans eye: red (570 nm), green (535 nm), and blue (445 nm).

Computer data
The text transmitted by PC is usually encoded using the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). Each character is represented by seven data bits (binary digit) constituing a unique binary pattern made up of 0s and 1s.
High Idle

0
Low Start bit

b1

b2

b3

b4

b5

b6

b7

b8

Data bit

Parity Stop bit bit

Data transmission
Asynchronous transmission, the text prepared on a PC and then transmitted over a communication channel with a single character being sent at a time. 2. Synchronous transmission, in which a whole sequence of encoded characters is sent over the channel in one long transmission. 3. The multiplexed stream of data so formed is then applied to a modem (modulator-demodulator) for the purpose of transmission over the channel.
1.

Data compression
Another way in which we use computer is to download compressed forms of text, audio, and video data from a service provider at a remote location.
1.

2.

Lossless compression (data compaction), operates by removing the redundant information. Lossy compression involves the loss of information in a controlled manner, a compression ratio higher than that attainable with lossless compression.

Standard compression algorithms

JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Groups) image coding

standard is designed to compress full-color or grayscale images of natural, real-world scenes by exploiting known limitations of the human visual system MPEG (Motion Photographic Experts Groups) -1/ video coding standard is designed to compress video signal at 30 frames per second (fps) into bit streams running at the rate of 1.5 megabits per second MPEG-1/audio coding standard is based on perceptual coding, which is waveform-preserving process; that is the amplitudetime wave form of the decoded audio signal closely approximates that of the original audio signal.

Communication Networks
1. Consist of an

interconnection of a number of routers made up of intelligent processors. 2. Is designed to served a shared resource for moving data exchanged between hosts in an efficient manner and to provide a framework to Boundary support new application of subnet and services

Routers

Hosts

The telephone network

1. Is an example of communication network in

which circuit switching is used to provide a dedicated communication path, or circuit, between two hosts. The circuits consists of a connected sequence of links from source to destination. Circuit switching is usually controlled by a centralized hierarchical control mechanism with knowledge of the network organization. 2. During the connection time, the bandwidth and resources allocated to the circuit are essentially owned by the two hosts until the circuit is disconnected.

The design of a data network

1.

2.

3.

4.

A network in which the hosts are all made up of computers and terminals, may proceed in an orderly way by looking at the network in terms of a layered architecture, regarded as a hierarchy of nested layers. Layer refers to a process or device inside a computer system, design to performed a specific function. At the system level, a user views the layer as a black box that is described in terms of inputs, outputs, and the functional relation between outputs and inputs In layer architecture, each layer regards the next lower layer as one or more black boxes with some given functional specification to be used by the given higher layer

OSI (Open System Interconnection)

International Organization for Standardization
1.

1/3

The design of data network, may proceed in an orderly way by looking at the network in terms of layers architecture, regarded as hierarchy of nested layers. Each layer regards the next lower layer as one or more black boxes with some given functional specification to be used by the the given higher layer. 2. Layers refers to a process or device inside a computer systems, designed to performed a specific function. 3. At the system level, a user views the layer as a black box that is described in terms of inputs, outputs, and the functional relation between outputs and inputs.

OSI (Open System Interconnection)

International Organization for Standardization
1.

2/3

The term Open, refers to the ability of any two systems conforming to the reference model and its associated standards to interconnect 2. In OSI reference model, the communications and related-connection functions are organized as a series of layers, or levels, with well-defined interfaces, and with each layers built on it predecessors. 3. In particular, each layer performs a related subset of primitive functions, and it relies on the next lower layer to perform additional primitive functions

OSI (Open System Interconnection)

International Organization for Standardization
Layer
7 6

3/3

End-user X
Application Layer 7 protocol

End-user Y
Application Provision of access to the OSI Transformation of the input data to provide service selected Provision of the control End to end control of the message exchange Routing of the packets and flow control design Error control for the reliable transfer of information Mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural Virtual communication System B Physical communication

Presentation

Presentation

Session Transport Layer 3 protocol Layer 3 protocol Network Layer 2 protocol DLC DLC Layer 2 protocol

Session Transport

Network

Network

Data link control Physical

Data link control Physical

Physical Physical link

Physical Physical link

System A

Subnet node

Communication Channels
Telephone network A coaxial cable (inner and outer conductor) An optical fiber (dielectric wave guide) Wireless broadcast channel (radio and TV) A mobile radio channel (encompass terrestrial situation where a radio transmitter or receiver is capable of being moved) 6. A satellite channel (broad-area coverage)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Modulation Process
1. To deliver a message signal, the transmitter

modifies into a form suitable for transmission over the channel, known as modulation, which involves varying some parameter of carrier wave in accordance with the message signal. 2. The receiver re-creates the original message signal from a degraded version of the transmitted signal after propagation through the channel, known as demodulation, which is the reverse of the modulation process used in transmitter.

Continuous-wave modulation
A sinusoidal wave is used as the carrier:
1.

2.

3.

4.

Amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the message Angle modulation, the angle of the carrier is varied Frequency modulation (FM), the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied Phase modulation (PM), the instantaneous phase of the carrier is varied

Pulse modulation
The carrier consists of a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses.
1.

2.

In analog pulse modulation, the amplitude, duration, or position of a pulse is varied in accoerdance with sample values of the message signal PAM (Pulse-amplitude modulation), PDM (Pulse duration modulation) , and PPM (Pulse-position modulation)

Pulse-code modulation (PCM)

1. The standard digital forme of pulse

modulation. 2. PCM starts out essentially as PAM: The amplitude of each, modulated pulse (sample of the original message signal) is quantized or roundedd off to the nearest value in a prescribed set of discrete amplitude level and then coded into a corresponding sequence of binary symbols

Digital communication system

Source of information Message signal Estimate of message signal User of information

Source encoder Source code word

Source decoder Estimate of source code word Channel decoder Estimate of channel code word Demodulator

Transmitter

Channel encoder Channel code word Modulator

Receiver

Waveform

Channel
Received signal

Analog and Digital Types of Communication

1. Encode/modulate the message signal generated by

the source of information, transmit it over the channel, and produce an estimate of it at the receiver output that satisfies the requirments of the end user 2. The design of a digital communication system is rather complex in conceptual terms but easy to build, moreover, the system is robust, offering greater tolerance of physical effects than its analog counterpart. 3. The design of an analog communication system is simple in conceptual term but difficult to build because of stringent requirements on linearity and system adjusment.

Other advantages of digital communication

1.

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2.
3.

4.

5.

Relatively inexpensive digital circuits Privacy is preserved by using data encryption Greater dynamic range (the diference between the largest and smallest values) is possible Data from voice, video, and data source may be merged and transmitted over a common digital transmission system In long distance system, noise does not accumulate from repeater to repeater

Other advantages of digital communication

6.

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Error in detected data may be small, even when there is large amount of noise on the received signal 7. Error may often be corrected by the use of coding

Disadvantages of digital

communication:
Generally, more bandwidth is required than that fr analog systems 2. Synchronize is required
1.

Shannons Information Capacity Theorem

1. The mesage signal is delivered to the user

both efficiently and reliably, subject to certain design constraints: allowable transmit power, available channel bandwidth, and affordable cost of building the system. 2. In the case of digital comunication system, reliability is commonly expressed in terms of bit error rate (BER) or probability of bit error measured at the receiver output.

The information capacity theorem

The maximum rate at which information can be transmitted across the channel without error; its measured in bits per second (b/s) C = B log2 (1 + SNR) B: the channel bandwidth C: the information capacity of the channel

Elements of a digital Communication system (transmitter, channel, receiver)

Message signal m(t)

Transmitted signal s(t)

Transmitted signal s(t)

Channel output (received signal) x(t)

(a)

Carrier wave Ac cos (2 fc t) Correlator Received signal x(t)

Noise w(t) (b)

dt

yT

Decision making device

Say 1 if yT > 0 Otherwise, say 0

Local carrier cos (2 fc t)

Threshold = 0 (c)

A Digital Communication Problem 1/4

The issue of the receiver determining whether a binary symbol sent over a noisy channel is decoded in error or not is of fundamental importance to the design of digital communication systems 2. Suppose a random signal, m(t), consisting of symbols 1 and 0. Symbol 1 is represented by a constant level +1, and symbol 0 is represented by a constant level -1, each of which lasts for duration T. Such a signal may represent the output of digital computer or digitized version of speech signal. 3. To facilitate the transmision, we employ a simple modulation scheme known as phase-shift keying.
1.

A Digital Communication Problem 2/4

Specifically, the information bearing signal m(t) is multiplied by sinusoidal carrier wave Ac cos(2 fct) where Ac is the carrier amplitude, fc (multiple of 1/T) is the carrier frequency and t is time with 0 t T 5. The output of the transmitter (figure: Elements ...) is defined by: s(t) = Ac cos(2 fct) for symbol 1 -Ac cos(2 fct) for symbol 0 where Ac is the carrier amplitude, fc (multiple of 1/T) is frequency and t is time with 0 t T
4.

A Digital Communication Problem 3/4

6.

Elements of a digital Communication system

(Block diagram of transmitter, channel, and receiver)

Message signal m(t)

Transmitted signal s(t)

Transmitted signal s(t)

Channel output (received signal) x(t)

(a)

Carrier wave Ac cos (2 fc t) Correlator Received signal x(t) X

Noise w(t) (b)

dt

yT

Decision making device

Say 1 if yT > 0 Otherwise, say 0

Local carrier cos (2 fc t)

Threshold = 0 (c)

A Digital Communication Problem 4/4

The channel is assumed to be distorsionless but noisy, the receive signal is defined by: x(t) = s(t) + w(t) where w(t) is the additive channel noise 8. The receiver concist of a correlator followed by a decision-making device. The correlator output is: yT = + Ac/2 + wT for symbol 1 - Ac/2 + wT for symbol 0, where wT is the contribution of the correlator output due to the channel noise w(t), the correlator output yT is compared against a threshold of zero volts by the DMC (decision-making device)
7.

Some basic issues

From the Fourier analysis we find that the time-bandwidth product of a pulse signal is constant. This means that the bandwidth of a rectangular pulse of duration T is inversely proportional to T. The transmitted signal in figure consists of the product of this rectangular signal and the sinusoidal carrier Ac cos (2 fc t). The multiplication of signal by a sinusoid has the effect of shifting the Fourier transform of the signal to the right by fc and to the left by an equal amount, except for the scaling factor of . It follows therefore that the bandwidth of the transmitted signal m(t), and therefore the required channel bandwidth, is inversely proportional to the reciprocal of the symbol duration T. For the problem at hand, the reciprocal of T is also the signaling rate of the system in b/s

Theoritical & practical considerations

Theoritical issues: 1. What is the Practical issues: 1. How do we choose a

modulation scheme? justification for the receiver structur? 2. How do we design the channel to come 2. How do we relate the very close to statistics of the Shannons random variable W to information capacity the statistical theorem? characteristic of the channel noise? 3. How do we synchronize the 3. What is the receiver to the probability of transmitter? decision errors?

Propagation of radio frequencies

1. Ground wave

Propagation (Below 2 MHz)

2. Sky-wave

Propagation (2-30 MHz)

3. Line of Sight (LOS)

Propagation (Above 30 MHz)

Frequency Bands
Frequency Designation Band 3-30 kHz Very low frequency (VLF) Propagation Characteristics Ground wave; low attenuation day n night; high atmospheric noise level Similar to VLF, slightly less reliable; absorption in daytime Ground wave and night sky wave; attenuation low at night and high in day; atmospheric noise

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Typical Uses Long-range navigation; submarine communication Long-range navigation and marine communication radio beacons Maritime radio, direction finding, and AM broadcasting

30-300 kHz Low F (LF)

300-3000 kHz

Medium F (MF)

Frequency Bands
Frequency Designation Band
3-30 MHz High frequency (HF)

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Typical Uses
Amateur radio; international broadcasting, military communication, long- distance aircraft and ship communication, telephone, telegraph, facsimile VHF television, FM twoway radio, AM aircraft communication, aircraft navigational aids UHF television, cellular telephone, navigational aids, radar, GPS, microwave links, personal communications systems

Propagation Characteristics
Ionospheric reflection varies with time of day, season, and frequency; low atmospheric noise at 30 MHz

30-300 MHz

Very high frequency (VHF)

Nearly line-of-sight (LOS) propagation, with scattering because of temperature inversions, cosmic noise LOS propagation, cosmic noise

0.3-3 GHz

Ultra high frequency (UHF)

Frequency Bands
Frequency Designation Band 1.0-2.0 2.0-4.0 3-30GHz L S Superhigh frequency (SHF) C X Ku K Ka R Extremely high freq (EHF) Propagation Characteristics

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Typical Uses Satellite communicati on, radar microwave links

4.0-8.0 8.0-12.0 12.0-18.0 18.0-27.0 27.0-40.0 26.5-40 30-300 GHz

LOS propagation; rainfall attenuation above 10 GHz, atmospheric attenuation because of oxygen and water vapor, high water vapor absorption at 22.2 GHz

Same; high water-vapor absorption at 183 GHz and oxygen absorption at 60 ang 119 GHz

Radar, satellite, experimental

Frequency Bands
Frequency Band 27.0-40.0 26.5-40 33.0-50.0 40.0-75.0 75.0-110.0 110.0-300.0 103-107 GHz Designation Extremely high frequency (EHF) Propagation Characteristics LOS propagation;

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Typical Uses Optical communications