Canada

The Canadian Shield Largest and the oldest feature of Canada is also called the Laurentian Shield or Laurentian upland or Plateau. Extending throughout the northwest part of the country from the Beaufort Sea to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and also includes Hudson Bay and Baffin Island. A remnant of the earth's crust formed by very old magma rocks, which is almost levelled by erosion.

The Cordillera Regions: It includes the mountains, faces the Pacific Ocean with a fairly rugged coastline indented by numerous inlets (fiorded coastline). The Rocky Mountain System originated from the alpine folding and started from the mid-mesozoic and continued, throughout the tertiary. The westernmost reaches of the Canadian Rockies comprise the Coast Mountain complex which includes the, highest, peaks in Canada, such as Mount Logan (6050,)), near the Alaska or boundary and Mount Waddington (4041m) in the southern section. East of the coast Mountain Range lies the range of Rocky Mountains proper culminating in Mount Robson (3954 m), on the border between the Provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. This region is rich in forest resources, hydroelectric power and mineral resources.

Climate Types: The characteristics of Canada's climate are predominantly of the continental type, with great annual temperature ranges and extensive cold and snowfall-in-the winter. Precipitation: The northern Arctic regions generally receive very little precipitation, less than 30 cm annually. Precipitation gradually increases toward the southeast and at the latitude of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, varying between 100 and 150 cm a year because of the west winds blowing in from the Atlantic. The Pacific coasts are also well provided with rain, which generally exceeds 200 cm a year. (iii) Temperature ranges are also very significant: in the Great Plains and the St. Lawrence region winter averages may normally drop to as low as -10C whereas on the southern coasts of the Pacific the average summer temperature however around 15C. (iv) Snowfall is also very intense and long-lasting, as are also the period of freezing weather,

Fisheries It is carried on in three main areas: (1) The East Coast Fisheries. Off Newfoundland, where the cold waters of the Labrador Current meet the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, are the Grand Banks, one of the world's greatest fishing grounds. Here are caught abundant supplies of cod, herring and haddock. The rocky inlets of the Atlantic coast are a valuable source of lobsters. The West Coast Fisheries. The ice-free coast of British Columbia, with its long, deep fiords, its stretches, of water sheltered by fringing islands and its clear, fastflowing rivers, is equally famous for its abundant salmonThese Pacific waters also produce herring and about 60 per cent of the world's halibut. The Great Lakes. From here and from other inland waters comes a considerable quantity of freshwater fish.

Natural Vegetation Patterns Arctic Tundra A narrow band of treeless tundra extends across the far northern portion of Canada. Sub-Arctic Parkland and Boreal forest South of the Tundra from New Foundland to Alaska is a vast coniferous, or boreal, forest chiefly spruce, fir and pine. This forest region, like the similar taiga of CIS, is one of the largest forest expanses remaining in the world. East Temperate Forest or Deciduous Forest (i) The coniferous forest gives way to deciduous forest through a broad transitional zone of white and yellow birch, poplar and maple (broad leaf species) in the eastern half of the continent. (ii) Northeastern Canada covered by a vast deciduous forest of oak, hickory, beach and maple in less fertile areas pines dominate. Prairies (i) The grassland of interior region change from tall grass prairies on the eastern margin of the great plains to short grasses on the drier western margin. (ii)The grasslands region can be used for agriculture and have already been brought under cultivation.

Forestry Although forests cover nearly 48 per cent of Canada, only half of them are productive; the rest is either inaccessible or composed of poor quality timber. There are three main areas of exploitation. Quebec and the Maritime Provinces. Many deciduous trees were cleared during pioneer days for building houses and implements and for fuel; those that remain are used chiefly for furniture-making. The conifers are cut for pulping and made into newspring at some of the world's largest paper-mills. The Southern Shield. Much of this area is forested with spruce and pine, which, as a result of the barren soils and harsh climate, are stunted and slow-growing. been greatly reduced both by extensive cutting and disastrous fires. Today large areas are governmentowned and the timber is carefully conserved. Lumbering is concentrated in or near the valleys of rivers flowing south-wards to the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence, British Columbia. Half of Canada's wood supplies comes from British Columbia, and there is a danger that cutting may exceed growth. Timber companies have, therefore, adopted a careful policy of reafforestation.

Agriculture . Three areas are of particular importance. (1) The Prairies of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. This is the most productive and extensive of the three areas. The gently rolling terrain and the fertile soils make it eminently suitable for the growth of cereals, and although winters are long and cold, summers are warm, moist and sunny. (2)The Maritime Provinces and the South of Quebec and Ontario. Crops are generally more varied than in the Prairies, but oats, grown as fodder for livestock, occupy much of the land. (3) British Columbia In the fertile valleys and on the intermont plateaus a great variety of crops is grown. This is because of its coastal location where climate is mild and the annual range of temperature is comparatively small. Cereals Canada is one of the world's largest wheat-producing countries. The greater part of the crop (wheat) comes from the Prairies where it is grown almost traditionally under the system of extensive mechanised agriculture. About 30 per cent of the farmland is now under pasture, and oats and barley, grown to provide winter feed for the increasing numbers of livestock, each occupying about one-sixth as much land as wheat

Other Crops Factors, such as soil and climate, are chiefly responsible for the growth of a variety of other crops in particular areas. Fruit, for instance, is especially associated with the sheltered Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia, the shores of Lake Erie and the interior valleys of British Columbia, while the Maritime Provinces are noted for potatoes and root crops generally. Due to the existence of numerous large towns, a great deal of land in such areas as the St. Lawrence Valley and the Fraser delta in British Columbia is devoted to market gardening.

The five leading non-ferrous metals in order of value are nickel, zinc (of which Canada is the world's largest producer), copper, gold and uranium. Asbestos (i) Asbestos is a thread like mineral fibres which are used in making fire-resistant materials. (ii) Half of the world's supply come from Thelford, Black Lake and the town of Asbestos in Quebec. (iii) Sugluk on Hudson strait has working deposits of asbestos.

Ferous Metal Iron (i) Older mines of Wabana on Bell Island, Newfoundland (at one time it was only the iron ore mine in Canada). (ii) Enormous reserves of high-grade ore have been found in the vicinity of Knob Lake in Labrador and on the northern shores of Lake Superior at Steep Rock and Michipicoten. Power Coal Distribution (i) Canada's coal fields are small and widely separated. (ii) Cape Breton island - is locally important region for coal deposits, but they lie far from the industrial and urban areas, which therefore find it easier and cheaper to import supplies from the Applachian coalfields across the American border. Importance of coal in Canada (i) No coal is used by the railways, which are now powered by diesel locomotives. (ii) Large quantities are required for the generation of electricity in the newly constructed thermal power stations.

Hydro-electricity Canada has extensive potential of hydel power and only the U.S.A. exceeds her in actually developed hydel power. It has harnessed less than one-third of her huge resources. Provides 75% of the electricity in Canada. Even though so much of the country is frozen in winter, there still remains considerable potential. Partly as a result of the Ice Age, numerous lakes, rapids and waterfalls which provide the two essential requirements for siting a hydro-electric power station, a storage reservoir and a constant 'head' of water. Ontario and Quebec provinces of Canada are important for hydel power generation plants. Important large power stations are at Corner Brook, Niagara, Manitou Falls, Kameno and Churchill Falls in Labrador.

Petroleum Distribution Turner Valley, Southwest of Calgary in Saskatchewan - For many years it was Canada's sole oil field. South of Calgary and near Edmonton: considerable deposits of petroleum are found. An economical process for the extraction of petroleum from the Athabasca 'tar-sands' has now been devised, and in the near future Canada might well find herself with more oil than she requires. Natural Gas Canada is even more favourably situated as regards natural gas. Distribution Deposits are found in Alberta and in the Peace River District of British Columbia. The Trans-Canada Gas Pipeline, which conveys Alberta gas to industrial areas in the east of the country, is the longest in the world. In 1968, a second trans-continental pipeline (the Great Lakes Transmission Pipeline) began operation; it runs from Alberta into the U.S.A. south of Lake Superior, thence to Sarnia

Great Lakes Region The region around Great Lakes is highly industrialised region of Canada. Major Industrial centres of Canada are the provinces of Quebec and Ontario80% of Canada's industries near Montreal, Toronto, Hamilton and Windsor. Industries in remote areas: The lead-zinc-silver smelter at Trail, British Columbia, and the paper industry at Corner Brook, Newfoundland. Iron and Steel Industry 1. This industry operates in two main areas. (i) At Sydney. Scotia, the industry was based originally on iron ore from Bel! Island and coking coal from a small local field. (ii) In the lowlands of Quebec and Ontario 2. Important localisation factors (i) Large demands for steel made by other industries, (ii) The Steel Company of Canada (STELCO) operates plants at a number of towns between Hamilton and Quebec. (iii) The iron ore comes both from Labrador and from the Steep Rock-Michipicoten area, (iv) Coal from Pennsylvania, and (v) Limestone - from southwestern Ontario.

Ports Montreal, despite its inland position and the winter freeze, is Canada's chief seaport. Halifax and St. John derive a great deal of their importance from the fact that they are ice-free throughout the year. On account of this the Canadian National Railway (CNR) was made to terminate at Halifax, while St. John is served by both the Canada National Railway (C.N.R.) and the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). Vancouver,grew rapidly after the completion of the C.P.R. in 1885, and increased still further in size and importance after the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. Bulk products from the western Prairies travel to Europe more cheaply Churchill on Hudson Bay is actually the nearest port to the Prairies, but it can operate only during the three or four summer months when it is free from ice. Railways The construction of railways was a factor of inestimable importance, not only in opening up remote areas of production, but also in welding together a nation of widely separated communities. There are two main systems. (i) The Canadian National Railway (C.N.R.) consists of lines built or acquired by the Government. Its main transcontinental line runs from termini at Prince Rupert and Vancouver on the Pacific coast to Halifax on the Atlantic. (ii) The Canadian Pacific Railway (C.P.R.) is the largest of the system under private owneship. Its main line runs from Vancouver to St. John in New Brunswick, 3.367 miles away.

Quebec and Ontario each have about one-third of the total population, and indeed one in every five Canadians lives in either Montreal or Toronto. Montreal Montreal is Canada's most cosmopolitan and also the second largest city. The languages predominantly spoken there are French and English. About 65 per cent of the population is Frenchspeaking, and there is a vigorous and influential Englishspeaking minority. Montreal continued to be the largest city in Canada until it was surpassed by Toronto in 1976. Toronto This big, thriving city on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario edged out Montreal to become Canada's largest metropolitan area in 1976. Its harbour is one of the busiest on the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway. Toronto is also the provincial capital of Ontario. Most important, it is one of Canada's leading educational and cultural centers.

Vancouver Vancouver is the biggest city in the Canadian West, Canada's leading Pacific port, and the gateway to one of the most popular resort areas in the nation. It is located across the Strait of Georgia from Vancouver Island to which it is connected by ferry. With its mild temperatures both in winter and summer and its abundant rainfall, Vancouver is a gardener's delight. The city's residential areas have long been noted for their beautifully landscaped houses.

Winnipeg Winnipeg is a major city of the Prairie Provinces and the capital of Manitoba. The Red River formed much of the eastern boundary of the city until the boundary was extended to include St. Boniface, the French-speaking city on the opposite bank. The name, incidentally, comes from the Cree Indian word win-nipiy, meaning "murky water", a reference to the brownish color of the city's.rivers.

Ottawa Ottawa, the federal capital of Canada, is on the Ontario shore of the Ottawa River More than a third of the inhabitants of the Ottawa area are of French descent. Hamilton Hamilton, at the western end of Land Ontario, is known as the 'Pittsburgh of Canada' because of the concentration of iron and steel industries there. One of Canada's busiest ports, with large quantities of iron ore, coal, and limestone being shipped in, put through the mills, and shipped out again in the form of finished iron and steel products, which are the city's major manufactures. Edmonton Edmonton, the capital of Alberta, lies along the banks of the North Saskatchewan River, which winds through the city in a deep gorge. Like Calgary, its long-time rival to the south, Edmonton has been a beneficiary of Alberta's recent oil boom. Calgary Calgary, in southern Alberta at the junction of the Bow and Elbow rivers, is surrounded by prairies and rangelands that merge into the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Halifax Halifax is the capital of Nova Scotia, the largest city in the Atlantic Provinces, and an important ice-free seaport.

Canada borders on three oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic. The Arctic region has a very small population mostly made up of about 12,000 Eskimos The first Europeans to sight Canada in about 1000 A. D. were the Vikings. Canada is the second largest country in the world after Russia. Manufacturing occupies more people in Canada than any other economic activity. For at least nine months of the year most of the Arctic Ocean is frozen over. From east to west Canada is more than 3,200 miles wide. Quebec on the St. Lawrence River was Canada's first settlement (1608). Canada has the longest coastline, almost 60,000 miles including islands, of any country in the world. Canada's leading industry is the manufacturing of food and beverages; second is transportation equipment. About three-quarters (75%) of Canada's people live in cities.

Some areas on Canada's west coast receive more than 250 cm (100 inch) of precipitation in a year, but on the eastern side of coastal mountains the precipitation is between 35 cm inch to 50 cm, a year. The people of Canada who are of British descent make up about 40% of the inhabitants, whereas people of French origin account for about 27%. Toronto, Canada's largest city, has a population of 3,427,000. Ottawa, Canada's capital, has about 819,000 people. About one-third of Canada is covered with forest. Canada imports about 65% of its needs from the USA, and sells about 75% of its exports to the USA. The USA Rocky Mountains and the Canadian Rocky Mountains are part of same chain. Mt. Logan in the Yukon Territory, 19,850' above sea level, is the second highest mountain in North America.

United States of America

Physiography The physiography of the USA is quite varied owing to the large size of the country. The physiography consist of plains, plateau and mountains and they can be divided into three major groups. They are (i) the Western Cordilleras (ii) the Central Lowlands and (iii) the Eastern or Appalachian Highlands.

The Western Cordilleras The Western Cordilleras runs from north to south along the entire length of the continent and consists of several parallel ranges, (i) the Rocky Mountains, (ii) the Pacific Mountains and Valleys, and the varied (iii) Intermontane Basin-and-Plateau country lying in between.

Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains forming the easternmost range of the Western Cordillera is also the highest range. The Rocky Mountains are themselves divided into three major regions; the Southern, Middle, and Northern Rockies. (a) Southern Rocky Mountains The Southern Rocky Mountains province lies across the heart of Colorado. The mountains constituting the eastern boundary rise sharply the adjacent Great Plains along a range called the Front Range in Colorado. Some large rivers rise in this province, including the Rio Grande and the Colorado River, but it is the glacial period that gave this region its distinctive topography through scouring and deposition.

(b)

Middle Rocky Mountains

The continuity of the Rocky Mountains northward is broken by the Wyoming Basin (also called the Great Divide Basin), The Middle Rocky Mountain province consists of ranges aligned in various directions, wide open valleys and basins, and a less congested topography than exists in the Southern Rockies. wasatch Range and Bighorn Basin are some important features. Yellowstone National Park which occupies the northwestern corner of Wyoming is also a part of this province. (c) Northern Rocky Mountains Northwest of Yellowstone Park, the Rocky Mountain landscape again changes considerably. The Northern Rocky Mountains exhibit a confused topography, generally lower than that of the Rockies southward and sustained by an even more complex set of structures than exists in the south. To the east lies the Great Plains province; to the south the Snake River Plain of southern Idaho forms a sharp topographic limit; and to the west, the plain of the Columbia River borders the Northern Rockies. Large-scale faulting and severe erosion, as well as glaciation, have combined to make this one of the country's most complex landscape regions.

Central Lowlands The interior of USA between the Rocky Mountains in the west and Appalachian Highlands in the east, is essentially composed of a vast expanse of plains. In (he south, it extends into Mexico merge with the Gulf-Atlantic Coastal Plain. The Interior Plains include the whole of 6 states (the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa and Indiana) practically all of Illinois, and parts of 23 other states. .

The Eastern or Appalachian Highlands The Applachian Highlands cover a vast area that extends from Newfoundland (Canada) to Albania. They contain distinct topographic regions: the Applachian Plateau, the Ridge and Valley area, the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Piedmont and the New England section. All are grouped together because they have a common geologic history and because they lie as highlands between lowland realms.

Appalachian Plateau
The Appalachian Plateau has an irregular topography carved by erosion into hill lands and low mountains, especially in West Virginia. Despite forming a part of the Appalachian Highlands realm, the eastern interior boundary of the Appalachian Plateau is quite well defined by major escarpments the Allegheny Front in the north and the Cumberland Escarpment in the south. It is the western boundary facing the Interior Lowlands that is in places indistinct, because the Appalachian Plateau loses elevation and prominence toward the west. "Newer" Appalachians or Ridge and Valley Topography Compared to the Appalachian Plateau's irregular terrain, the "Newer" Appalachians' form a long parallel ridge and valley topography that extends from New York to Albania. Parallel vegetation-clad ridges reach remarkably even summits between 900 and 1200 m above sea level. The eastern edge of this physiographic province is marked by a wider lowland corridor called the Great Valley of the Appalachians. The Great Valley, the most distinctive, runs all the way from northern New York to Albania. The Hudson Valley, the Cumberland Valley, the valley of East Tennesse are

Blue Ridge Mountains

East of the Great Valley, extending from northern Georgia to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, lies the Blue Ridge Mountains section of the Appalachians. The province is underlain by ancient crystalline rocks, mostly highly metamorphosed. In this respect the Blue Ridge differs from the Appalachian Plateau and "Newer" Appalachians in that the latter two are sustained by sedimentary rocks. The Blue Ridge section is indeed the "Older" Appalachians by virtue of the age of the rocks and the successive periods of mountain-building. In the mountainous Blue Ridge, where the Great Smoky Mountain dominates the province's southern end, the Appalachian Highlands reaches its highest elevations in western North Carolina. The Piedmont The Piedmont is a rolling upland plain that forms the eastern margin of the Applachian. The zone of contact between the Piedmont and the coastal plain is known as the Fall Line-a name deriving from the falls and rapids which mark the course of rivers from upland regions to the lower coastal plain. In the Blue Ridge section, the Appalachians can rise to over 2000 m (6500 ft), but in the Piedmont the maximum elevation is about 900 m (3000 ft) along the inner boundary, declining from there toward the contact with the Coastal Plain. The underlying rocks of the Piedmont, however, are the same as those of the Blue Ridge: ancient, highly altered crystallines. Thus, the difference is principally a matter of topography and relief.

The Piedmont has more relief than the Coastal Plain, with isolated higher hills rising

It extends from the submerged coastal zone to the interior White Mountains of New Hampshire and Maine and the Green Mountains of Vermont. They are made of ancient crystalline rocks. Here elevations exceed 1800 m. The Gulf-Atlantic Coastal Plain An extensive coastal plain occupies the seaward margin of the USA from Cape Cod (New Jersey) to the Rio Grande (Texas). Only three States - Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana lie.entirely within the coastal plain but the plain touches 16 other states. In its southwestern section, it contains great oil, gas, sulphur, and salt deposits which provide the basis for major oil refining and chemical industries.

The Intermontane Basins and Plateau region They lie between the Rock}- mountains in the east and the Pacific Mountains in the west. The ImennonUme area may be divided in to number of major sub sections as follows: The Basin and Range country. The Colorado Plateau, The Columbia-Snake Plateau, The Fraser-Nechako-Stikine Plateau (Canada), and The Yukon River Basin (Canada),

(a) Basin-and-Range Province South of the Columbia Plateau and west and south of the Colorado Plateau lies the Basin-and-Range province. Actually, this is not just one basin but an entire region of basins, many of them internally drained and not connected to other surface depressions by permanent streams. The Basin-and-Range province looks like a sea of fault blocks thrust upward along parallel axes. The basins are mostly dry, streams are intermittent, vegetation is sparse, and wind action plays a major role in sculpting the landscape. The most famous of all the existing bodies of water in this province is undoubtedly the Great Salt Lake in northern Utah. (b) Colorado Plateau The Colorado Plateau, by contrast, is underlain chiefly by flat-lying or nearly horizontal sedimentary strata, weathered in this semiarid environment into vivid colors (Colorado is a Spanish word for red) and carved by erosion into uniquely spectacular landscapes. The eastern boundary is shared with the Southern Rocky Mountains province. On the western side, a lengthy fault scarp bounds the Colorado Plateau and separates it from the Basin and Range province (which also borders the region on the south). The Colorado Plateau is traversed by several sets of steep-walled canyons with multicolored layers of sedimentary rocks. The Grand Canyon of northern Arizona, is of course the most famous. Rivers,

principally the Colorado, San Juan and little Colorado have cut vigorously into the

(c) Columbia Snake Plateau The Columbia Plateau region lies wedged between the Northern Rocky Mountains to the east and the Cascade Range of Washington and Oregon to the west. It is characterised by extensive areas of level land, the result of massive lava flows in the past which buried the past topography. The Columbia Plateau itself is one of the largest lava surfaces or Intermontane basaltic plateau in the world.

Pacific Mountains and Valleys West of Columbia Plateau and Basin-and-Range Province lies the very complex region of Pacific Mountains and Valleys. The dominant orientation here is approximately northsouth, parallel to the West Coast; this is the western edge of the North American Plate. These include: Alaska Range: Coast Mountains of British Columbia; Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon; Sierra Nevada in California, Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico and the Peninsula of lower California. It includes Mt. McKinley , the highest peak of North America. In between the ranges three main gaps have been cut by the Fraser, the Columbia and the Colorado Rivers. In the north and south of this physiographic province, two elongated valleys separate lower coastal mountains from higher interior mountains. In the north, between the Cascades to the east and the Coast Ranges to the west, the WillamettePuget Sound Lowland extends northward from south of Portland, (Oregon), to north to Seattle, (Washington), where it becomes filled with ocean water. In the south. 1ies the Central Valley of California a narrow lowland area almost completely enclosed by mountains

Drainage Watershed The drainage network of the United States is strictly conditioned by its mountain formations: the continental watershed line (Continental Divide) runs along the Rocky Mountains, separating the streams flowing toward the Atlantic from those flowing toward the. Streams of the Pacific The Yukon, which drains a good part of Alaska, with a course 2900 km long and a large basin of about 850.000 km2 The Columbia, which receives the Snake and is roughly 2000 km long with a drainage area of about 800,000 km2; The Sacramento, which drains the streams from the large central valley of California; and

The Colorado, 2300 km long with a drainage basin the streams from the large central valley of California; flows through the arid regions of the interior plateaus of the Rockies and empties into the Gulf of California.
Streams of the Atlantic The tributaries of the Atlantic are much more abundant. Many short rivers rising in the Appalachian highlands, such as the Hudson, empty into it, while the St. Lawrence, with only its southern shore lying in the United States, drains the large Great Lakes system. Streams of the Gulf of Mexico Rio Grande which forms a large part of the U.S.Mexican border,

The Mississippi which, together with the Missouri and its other right-and left-bank tributaries (the Ohio and the Tennessee), constitutes one of the largest river

Great Lakes: Some facts The lakes in order of size are Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario. Lake Superior (31,120 sq. mi.) is about four times larger than Lake Ontario (7,540 sq. mi.). Lake Superior is slightly smaller than South Carolina. Only one of the lakes, Lake Michigan, is wholly within the United States. Canada and the United States share the other four.

The Great Lakes are connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the St. Lawrence Seaway, the St. Lawrence River and, finally, the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A ship travels 2,342 miles from Duluth, Minnesota to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Great Lakes are connected to the Gulf of Mexico via the Illinois Waterway and the Mississippi River. Thus, it is possible to enter the St. Lawrence Gulf and sail all the way to New Orleans Still another important water route connects the Great Lakes to New York City via the Hudson River and the New York State Barge Canal System. During the winter months shipping in the Great Lakes is severely curtailed. Most of the lakes, the St. Lawrence Seaway and the St. Lawrence River are frozen. In some places ice-breakers keep waterways open, but keeping them open is a considerable task.

Climate The United States includes a greater number of major climatic types within its boundaries than does any other country in the world. Factors influencing the Climate Latitudinal influence Arrangement of large mountain systems Air masses: Excluding Alaska, which is directly affected by the Arctic air masses USA is also affected by tropical airmasses. Oceanic Influence: The contiguous ocean masses of the Atlantic and Pacific also have a considerable effect on the climate. On the Atlantic coastclimatic conditions are characterised by extensive temperature swings due to the effect of the cold atmospheric and marine currents from the Arctic which are responsible for harsh winters with heavy snows, while summers are generally fairly warm and humid. Absence of east-west mountain barriers: The absence of east-west mountain barriers exposes the country to sharp temperature contrasts under the dual influence of polar and tropical air masses.

Natural Regions

Arctic (or Tundra) Region

Climatic Types: Arctic or Tundra, found in the northern margins of Alaska. SoilThe sub-soil is permanently frozen to a considerable depth (permafrost) but the surface thaws out during the brief summer and becomes water-logged.
Vegetation Characteristics Consists of mosses and lichens, with occasional patches of dwarf, shallow rooted shrubs, such as heather and crowberry. Few stunted pines and dwarf birch trees grow on the margins of cold continental regions. Precipitation: Generally less than 50 cm , mostly falling in summer as a result of frontal depressions. Winter snow is quite small in amount, although it remains conspicuously on the ground for long periods. Climatic Types: Cool Temperate Maritime climate, occupies a strip of coastal lowland extending from southern Alaska to the northern border of California. Temperature: In winter westerly winds from off the relatively warm waters of the Pacific Ocean keep the January temperatures above freezing point and the coastal waters are ice-free, but in summer these waters are cool in comparison with the land, and July temperatures are only about 16C . Precipitation: All seasons of the year, heavy, because moist air-masses, continually moving in from the Pacific are forced to rise almost as soon as they reach the coast. In the rain-shadow area east of the coastal mountains, and as one approaches the 'Mediterranean' area to the south, precipitation is markedly less. Soil Types: Podzol in the wet coastal areas of Oregon and Washington.

Cold Continental

Cool Temperate Maritime Region

Warm Temperate Western Margins (or Mediterranean') Region

Climatic Characteristics Rainfall in winter with on-shore westerlies and dry summer with off-shore trades. San Francisco in California is the representative climatic stations of Mediterranean climate. Vegetation: Evergreen woodland of southern California has been cut down and in its place masses of short stunted bushes have grown, known as 'Chapparal' in California Climatic Characteristics A few torrential downpours may be followed by many wholly rainless months or even years. The region includes Mohave, Sonoran and California deserts, formed partly as a result of offshore trade winds, rain shadow effect of Sierra Nevada, high atmospheric pressure which persist over the area for most part of the year and partly due to the presence of the cool Californian Current, maximum daily temperatures are frequently 38C or more. The continually clear skies lead to great ranges of temperature Vegetation is scanty and consists only ofxerophytic scrub Heavy rainfall is caused by moist air-masses from the Gulf of Mexico, especially where these rise over steep mountain ranges, and is further increased by convection currents which are particularly active when the sun is overhead at noon. Vegetation Evergreen dense forests of valuable hardwood trees (mahogany, rosewood, ebony) with very thick undergrowth consisting of lianas and epiphytes.

Hot Desert Region

Tropical Maritime Region

Humid Continental (or ^Laurentian') Region

Climatic Characteristics

Temperature: Great annual range of temperature. Heavy snowfalls, which may paralyse briefly the life of cities such as Washington, Toronto and Chicago, are common in winter, while heat-waves and thunderstorms occur frequently during the summer months.
VegetationThe Maritime Provinces of Canada, north-eastern USA and the Great Lakes area were originally covered by 'mixed forest' composed of both coniferous and deciduous trees, but now many of them have been cut for timber, or for agriculture and settlement. Precipitation: Annual precipitation amounts to 100 cm or more. The northern -limit of this type of climate is approximately the northern limit of successful cotton-growing, a line through places experiencing 200 frost free days. Apart from occasional burst of cold air from the north, the climate is dominated by moist Tm air .masses from the Gulf of Mexico and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic Ocean. The three outstanding features of this climate are the high humidity, the violent summer thunderstorms, which often cause widespread damage to fruit crops, and the dreaded hurricanes, which in autumn form in the Gulf and travel northwards. Soil Types: Podzol soil in South eastern region of high temperature and heavy rainfall. Vegetation: Luxuriant forests of deciduous type are found in low lying damp areas while numerous types of pine are found on the dry sandy soils.

Warm Temperate Eastern Margins Region

Mid-latitude Semi-arid Region

Precipitation is between 25 to 50 cm low due to continentality.

An interesting feature of this climate in the High Plains is the warm Chinook wind which may blow-quite (snow eater) suddenly in spring, causing a remarkable transformation.
Soil Types Chernozem in the eastern part of this region which becomes 'chestnut coloured' to the west and then 'brown in the extreme west (owing to diminishing supplies of humus). Vegetation Treeless temperate grassland Prairies are found although some species like low willows, alders, and poplars found along water course. Towards extreme west in grasses become shorter and sparser. Mountain areas may display a great variety of climate as a result of the altitude, exposure to or shelter from dominant winds, temperature inversion, the incidence of fog and frost in valley bottoms, and many other local features. The influence of altitude is well exemplified in Mexico, where between sea-level and 3,000 feet are the hot, tropical coastlands. Soils and Vegetation: differ as widely as the types of climate.

Mountaineous Region

Peaks and steep slopes are often without soil of any kind, while the remaining areas are covered with the ill-sorted products or weathering, ranging from boulders and pebbles to fine-grained sands, described as 'immature' soils. On the lower slopes vegetation frequently takes the form of coniferous forest; above the 'timber line' (or upper limit of tree growth) there are grasslands, and still higher are only small alpine plants, bare rock and permanent snow.

Minerals Iron Ore Major iron-are producing regions in the USA are Lake Superior region: Haematite with a metal content of 52 65 per cent mainly occur in the west and south of Lake superior, the most important of which is the Mesabi Range. But the richest and the most accessible of haematite ore are almost exhausted because they have been worked since mid nineteenth century. North-eastern region: Adirondacks region of New York and the Cornwall of Pennsylvania are important for magnetic ore deposits. The Western Region: Scattered iron ore reserves in the western region of USA, in the states of California, Nevada, Utah and Wyoming. The South-eastern Region: States of Birmingham and Alabama are important for both haematite and limonite ores.

Coal

The Appalachian Coalfields provide three-quarters of America's total and contain excellent coals of almost every type. Gas-and coking-coals are plentiful in the Northern and Southern Coalfields, and have been major factors in the location of the steel industry around Pittsburgh and around Birmingham (Alabama). Anthracite from the Ridge and Valley areas of East Pennsylvania

Household and steam coal comes mainly from the Central field in Kentucky and West Virginia.
The Eastern Interior Coalfield, centred on Illinois, also consists of thick seams near the surface, which are easily excavated. The coal has only poor cooking qualities, but it is particularly useful for raising steam in thermal power stations, which supply Chicago and other urban centres. The Western Interior Coalfield, centred on eastern Kansas, is very extensive, but is little worked because the coal is of low grade. The U.S.A.is the world's largest producer of hydro-electricity. The major producing areas are in the St. Lawrence Valley (at dams associated with the Seaway and the Niagara Falls), the Tennessee Valley, the Columbia Valley (Bonneville and Grand Coulee) and the Colorado Valley (the Hoover Dam).

Hydro-electricity

Petroleum Oil The U.S.A. is the world's largest producer of crude oil, but even this is insufficient for the country's needs, and large quantities are imported from Venezuela and the Middle East. Oil was first struck in Pennsylvania in 1859, and soon other deposits were opened up in the gentle folds immediately west of the Appalachians and in a number of outlying districts in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. Some high quality oil is still being produced in these areas, but the deposits are now almost exhausted. Today there are three main producing areas The Mid-continental Field extending from Kansas through Oklahoma into Texas provides 40 per cent of America's output. The California Field (25 per cent) now produces less than formerly. The Gulf Coast Field (30 per cent) is steadily increasing its output, as more wells are sunk in the Missisippi delta and in the shallow, offshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Natural Gas The U.S.A. is the world's largest producer of natural gas. The gas usually occurs in association with petroleum, especially in Texas, and is used both as a fuel and in the manufacture of petrochemicals (plastics, manmade fibres, etc.).

Industrial Regions

The Middle Atlantic States

Advantages for Industrial developments

The proximity of the region to Pennsylvanian anthracite, bituminous coal and oil of Appalachians. Steady influx of immigrants forming a vast skilled labour force. Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay not only serve as convenient waterways for ocean vessels but also provide an easy access to foreign markets. Today most of the iron ore supply comes from Canada and Venezuela through them. This is the most populous region of the United States. Thus, it has produced a large domestic market for its own industrial productions. Small amount raw materialscoal and iron. This region is one of the longest, largest and most populous of the world's metropolitan chains or Megalopolis, extending from New York to Baltimore with New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and Philadelphia being other industrial centres along-with some small centres like Sparrow Point, Bethlehem, etc. instruments factories at Philadelphia) are found here. Major Manufacturing Centres New York CityPrinting, publishing, metal fabrication, electrical goods, apparel industry and food processing units, specialises in financial and administrative sectors. PhiladelphiaFood processing plants and Shipyards and petroleum refineries line the Delaware River below Philadelphia. Baltimore and CamdenMajor food processing centres. Sparrows PointPetrochemical plants and iron and steel industry. Wilmington, DelawareChemicals plants.

The Pittsburgh-Lake Erie Region The region has an ideal location for iron and steel manufacturing. Apart from proximity to an excellent domestic market, this region has excellent transportation advantages: the Great Lakes, all the major railroads running from Middle Atlantic to the Midwest, major highways and a network of pipelines and air routes converge here. Further more, the region is rich in coal.The location of North America on the opposite side of Europe stimulated international trade and the development of cheap inland water and rail transport. Besides, the development of cheap inland water and rail transport helped in mobilising the raw materials to the industry and finished products to the markets. 1. New England States It comprises six New England States namely, Connecticut, Rhode Island Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine. Boston is the main centre of this industrial region. It is the most densely populated and most urbanised region of USA. Two zones of industrial concentrations may be distinguished within New England. Eastern New EnglandFavourable conditions for industrial developments High concentration of population, it formed one of the most important markets in the Western Hemisphere. Numerous streams flowing over the rocky terrain provided the facilities for waterpower development, which formed the traditional source of energy in the coal scarce region. Surplus capital was reaped from the operations of ships and exports of timber.

The rough terrain of the region encouraged extensive agriculture and wool and

Another advantage lay in the situation of Eastern New England near the sea with good harbours, which facilitated the import and export trade with all the background set for the industrial development. Boston is the main centre of the region. The traditional industries of shipbuilding are found at Boston. Textiles and leather are the oldest industry developed here. Footwear and textile manufacturing machinery are its specialised supplies. No particular city dominates this region the way Boston dominates eastern New England. SpringfieldElectrical machinery. HartfordAircraft and armaments.

Western New England

The cheap power from Niagara Falls has helped in the development of several new industries like aluminium, paper, electro-chemicals, etc. The whole region has easy access to the markets both in the Atlantic coast and in the western interior.
1. Iron and Steel Industry An iron and steel producing belt, based on coal from the northern Appalachian coalfields and iron ore from Mesabi Range via Great Lakes, developed from Pittsburgh to Lake Erie. Pittsburgh iron and steel capital' of the world. Wheeling, Youngstown, Warren, Sharon and Cleveland are other important steel towns.

Buffalonear the confluence of the Erie Canal and Lake Erie, produces and flour with the help of hydroelectric power from Niagara Falls.

The Detroit Industrial Region

Detroit Located along the Detroit river, this metropolis is on the main stream of Great Lakes shipping with easy access to iron ore from Lake Superior region and coal from Lake Erie region.

Greatest automobile-manufacturing region of the U.S.A., sometimes called as the automative capital of the United States'.
The region has developed various ancillary activities to car manufacturing such as tyre-making, electrical wires, glass, batteries, paints, polishes, alloyed steel and spare parts.

The Lake Michigan Region An important industrial concentration has developed on the southern Lake Michigan hinterland, a horseshoe-shaped industrial area wrapped around the lower end of Lake Michigan. Advantages of this region (i) Productive agricultural regions, providing raw material for certain foodprocessing units, and also the agricultural surpluses help in increasing the purchasing capacity for the manufactured goods. (ii)Densely populated region, which forms a vast market apart from cheap labour. (iii) Earliest advantage of function as a rail-road centre and also a major highway convergence point of all the major transportation, for example, Chicago- most important region which is situated on a navigable canal and is a good port. It is a major highway convergence point, it is the largest centre for air travel in the United States and has the largest railway yard in the Western Hemisphere. (iv) Level terrain, fertile soils and suitable climate has supported commercial agriculture in the region.Chicago, Illinois. Indiana and Milwaukee are major centre. Manufacturing Centres ChicagoMeatpacking, grain milling and manufacturing of agricultural machinery Southwestern Ohio, East-central Indiana and Louisvillearea of diversified manufacturing such as machinery, aircraft, paper, etc. Cincinnatinational leader in making machine tools. Miami Valleypaper. Chicago-Garysteel mills.

The South Region

This region does not have any large industrial agglomerations comparable with those in the north. The important manufacturing concentrations are Houston, Atlanta, and Birmingham. This region can be subdivided into two parts (i) the southeastern part, and (ii) the southwestern part and both have been enjoying different set of advantages and this is reflected in the kind of manufacturing units that are located there. Advantages of this region (i) Rich deposits of minerals. Two-thirds of the great Appalachian coal field lies in West Virginia, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee and Alabama. iron ore is found in Alabama, phosphate in Florida and Kaolin in Georgia. (ii)Agricultural and forest resources. The region grows cotton and tobacco and has excellent timber reserves. (iii) Excellent waterpower resource. The two important hydroelectric plants are located at the Piedmont and the Tennessee Valley. (iv) Moderately large population, providing cheap unskilled labour and market. (v) The climate is mild, which helps in incurring less factory overhead expenses than north for winter time heating. Manufacturing Products and Centres (i) (ii) Birmingham Major steel making centre of this region. New Orleansoil refining, chemicals and cotton textile industries.

Southeastern region

Southwestern Region Advantages of this region

The region's industrial development is based on oil. The region supplies about one-third of the U.S. domestic production of oil and has three-quarters of the country's natural gas reserves.
Other advantages of this region are (i)westward spread of agriculture into drier regions particularly, the cotton cultivation has provided a sound agricultural base; (ii)the oil refining and chemical industries have been located on the coasts so that oil and oil products are easily exported to other countries or sent to other parts of the U.S.A. through the ports and transshipment points; (iii)intra-coastal waterway has been constructed running along the coast and through lagoons giving a deep channel on the shallow Gulf shore; (iv)capital, has been generated by the oil industry which is invested in the development of other industries, either linked with oil or producing consumer goods. Houstonoil refineries, chemical plants, synthetic rubber factories and steel milling and the manufacture of mining equipment and consumer products. Dallasmajor cotton market, apparel and fashion industries.

Fort Worthcattle town with the largest stockyards in the southern U.S.A. and is

Other Industrial Region of the U.S.A Characteristics Kansas Citysimilar manufactures as St. Louis and in addition it also has aircraft and oil refining. Seattle Aircraft industry partly due to cheap hydroelectric power and aluminium plants. Portland, Los Angeles and San Diegomajor aircraft centres.

Californiasuitable climate of southern California facilitate aircraft testing. Los AngelesKnown for its world famous film industry. Along with it, the climatic advantages for outdoor living has promoted sportswear and apparel manufactures. San Franciscolargest food-processing centre, centre for ship building and repair. Los Angeles - Santiago Corridorprocesses and packs the fruit and vegetable specialties. Los Angeles and OaklandOil refining and chemical industries are important. The San project Francisco Bay districtfamous for Silicon Valley