Physics and Physical Measurement

Topic 1.1 The Realm of Physics Range of magnitudes of quantities in our universe

Range of Magnitudes
You will need to be able to state (express)

quantities to the nearest order of magnitude That is to say to the nearest 10x

Range of magnitudes of quantities in our universe (1)

Sizes

From 10-15 m (subnuclear particles) To 10+25 m (extent of the visible universe)

Range of magnitudes of quantities in our universe (2)

masses

From 10-30 kg (electron mass) To 10+50 kg (mass of the universe)

Range of magnitudes of quantities in our universe (3)

Times

From 10-23 s (passage of light across a nucleus) To 10+18 s (age of the universe)

You will also be required to state (express) ratios of quantities as differences of order of magnitude Example: the hydrogen atom has a diameter of 10-10 m whereas the nucleus is 10-15 m The difference is 105 A difference of 5 orders of magnitude

Physics and Physical Measurement

Topic 1.2 Measurement and Uncertainties

The S.I. system of fundamental and derived units

Standards of Measurement
SI units are those of the Systme

International dUnits adopted in 1960

Used for general measurement in most

countries

Fundamental Quantities
Some quantities cannot be measured in a

simpler form and for convenience they have been selected as the basic quanitities
They are termed Fundamental Quantities,

Units and Symbols

The Fundamentals
Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temp Amount of a substance

metre kilogram second ampere Kelvin mole

m kg s A K mol

Derived Quantities
When a quantity involves the measurement

of 2 or more fundamental quantities it is called a Derived Quantity

The units of these are called Derived Units

The Derived Units

Acceleration

ms-2 Angular acceleration rad s-2 Momentum kgms-1 or Ns Others have specific names and symbols Force kg ms-2 or N

Standards of Measurement
Scientists and engineers need to make

accurate measurements so that they can exchange information To be useful a standard of measurement must be Invariant, Accessible and Reproducible

3 Standards (for information)

The Metre :- the distance traveled by a

beam of light in a vacuum over a defined time interval ( 1/299 792 458 seconds) The Kilogram :- a particular platinumiridium cylinder kept in Sevres, France The Second :- the time interval between the vibrations in the caesium atom (1 sec = time for 9 192 631 770 vibrations)

Conversions
You will need to be able to convert from one

unit to another for the same quanitity

J to kWh J to eV Years to seconds And between other systems and SI

KWh to J
1 kWh = 1kW x 1 h

= 1000W x 60 x 60 s = 1000 Js-1 x 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 x 106 J

J to eV
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

SI Format
The accepted SI format is

ms-1 not m/s ms-2 not m/s/s

i.e. we use the suffix not dashes

Uncertainity and error in measurement

Errors
Errors can be divided into 2 main classes Random errors Systematic errors

Mistakes

Mistakes on the part of an individual such as

misreading scales poor arithmetic and computational skills wrongly transferring raw data to the final report using the wrong theory and equations

These are a source of error but are not considered as an experimental error

Systematic Errors
Cause a random set of measurements to be

spread about a value rather than being spread about the accepted value It is a system or instrument value

Systematic Errors result from

Badly made instruments Poorly calibrated instruments

An instrument having a zero error, a form of

calibration Poorly timed actions Instrument parallax error Note that systematic errors are not reduced by multiple readings

Random Errors
Are due to variations in performance of the

instrument and the operator Even when systematic errors have been allowed for, there exists error.

Random Errors result from

Vibrations and air convection Misreading Variation in thickness of surface being

measured Using less sensitive instrument when a more sensitive instrument is available Human parallax error

Reducing Random Errors

Random errors can be reduced by taking multiple readings, and eliminating

obviously erroneous result or by averaging the range of results.

Accuracy
Accuracy is an indication of how close a

measurement is to the accepted value indicated by the relative or percentage error in the measurement An accurate experiment has a low systematic error

Precision
Precision is an indication of the agreement

among a number of measurements made in the same way indicated by the absolute error A precise experiment has a low random error

Limit of Reading and Uncertainty

The Limit of Reading of a measurement is equal to the smallest graduation of the scale of an instrument

The Degree of Uncertainty of a measurement is equal to half the limit of reading e.g. If the limit of reading is 0.1cm then the uncertainty range is 0.05cm This is the absolute uncertainty

Reducing the Effects of Random Uncertainties

Take multiple readings When a series of readings are taken for a

measurement, then the arithmetic mean of the reading is taken as the most probable answer The greatest deviation or residual from the mean is taken as the absolute error

Absolute/fractional errors and percentage errors

We use to show an error in a

measurement (208 1) mm is a fairly accurate measurement (2 1) mm is highly inaccurate

 In order to compare uncertainties, use is

made of absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties. 1 mm is the absolute uncertainty 1/208 is the fractional uncertainty (0.0048) 0.48 % is the percentage uncertainity

Combining uncertainties
For addition and subtraction, add absolute

uncertainities y = b-c then y dy = (b-c) (db + dc)

Combining uncertainties
For multiplication and division add

percentage uncertainities x = b x c then dx = db + dc x b c

Combining uncertainties
When using powers, multiply the

percentage uncertainty by the power z = bn then dz = n db z b

Combining uncertainties
If one uncertainty is much larger than

others, the approximate uncertainty in the calculated result may be taken as due to that quantity alone

Uncertainties in graphs

Plotting Uncertainties on Graphs

Points are plotted with a fine pencil cross Uncertainty or error bars are required These are short lines drawn from the

plotted points parallel to the axes indicating the absolute error of measurement

Uncertainties on a Graph
y

Significant Figures
The number of significant figures should

reflect the precision of the value or of the input data to be calculated Simple rule: For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in a result should not exceed that of the least precise value upon which it depends

Estimation
You need to be able to estimate values of everyday objects to one or two significant figures And/or to the nearest order of magnitude e.g.

Dimensions of a brick Mass of an apple Duration of a heartbeat Room temperature Swimming Pool

You also need to estimate the result of calculations e.g.

6.3 x 7.6/4.9 = 6 x 8/5 = 48/5 =50/5 =10 (Actual answer = 9.77)

Approaching and Solving Problems

You need to be able to state and explain any

simplifying assumptions that you make solving problems e.g. Reasonable assumptions as to why certain quantities may be neglected or ignored i.e. Heat loss, internal resistance Or that behaviour is approximately linear

Graphical Techniques
Graphs are very useful for analysing the

data that is collected during investigations Graphing is one of the most valuable tools used because

Why Graph
it gives a visual display of the relationship between two or more variables shows which data points do not obey the relationship gives an indication at which point a relationship ceases to be true used to determine the constants in an equation relating two variables

 You need to be able to give a qualitative

physical interpretation of a particular graph e.g. as the potential difference increases, the ionization current also increases until it reaches a maximum at..

Plotting Graphs
Independent variables are plotted on the x-

axis Dependent variables are plotted on the yaxis Most graphs occur in the 1st quadrant however some may appear in all 4

Plotting Graphs - Choice of Axis

When you are asked to plot a graph of a

against b, the first variable mentioned is plotted on the y axis Graphs should be plotted by hand

Plotting Graphs - Scales

Size of graph should be large, to fill as

much space as possible choose a convenient scale that is easily subdivided

Plotting Graphs - Labels

Each axis is labeled with the name and

symbol, as well as the relevant unit used The graph should also be given a descriptive title

Plotting Graphs - Line of Best Fit

When choosing the line or curve it is best to use a transparent ruler Position the ruler until it lies along an ideal line The line or curve does not have to pass through every point Do not assume that all lines should pass through the origin Do not do dot to dot!

Analysing the Graph

Often a relationship between variables will

first produce a parabola, hyperbole or an exponential growth or decay. These can be transformed to a straight line relationship General equation for a straight line is y = mx + c
y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable, m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept

 The parameters of a function can also be

obtained from the slope (m) and the intercept (c) of a straight line graph

Gradients (SLOPE!)
Gradient = vertical rise / horizontal run or gradient = y / x

uphill slope is positive and downhill slope

is negative Dont forget to give the units of the gradient

Areas under Graphs

The area under a graph is a useful tool e.g. on a force displacement graph the area

is work (N x m = J) e.g. on a speed time graph the area is distance (ms-1 x s = m) Again, dont forget the units of the area

Standard Graphs - linear graphs

A straight line passing through the origin

shows proportionality
y yx

k = rise/run

y=kx Where k is the constant of proportionality

Standard Graphs - parabola

A parabola shows that y is directly

proportional to x2
y
y

i.e. y x2 or y = kx2 where k is the constant of proportionality

x2

Standard Graphs - hyperbola

A hyperbola shows that y is inversely

proportional to x
y
y

1/x

i.e. y 1/x or y = k/x where k is the constant of proportionality

Standard Graphs - hyperbola again

An inverse square law graph is also a

hyperbola
y
y

i.e. y 1/x2 or y = k/x2 where k is the constant of proportionality

1/x2

Non-Standard Graphs
You need to make a connection between

graphs and equations

y
If this is a graph of r against t2 plotted from data having an expected relationship r = at2/2 +r0 where a is a constant

x Then the gradient is a/2 and the y-intercept is r0 - it is not the case that r t2, it is a linear relationship The intercept is therefore important too

Physics and Physical Measurement

Topic 1.3 Scalars and Vectors

Scalars Quantities
Scalars can be completely described by

magnitude (size) Scalars can be added algebraically They are expressed as positive or negative numbers and a unit examples include :- mass, electric charge, distance, speed, energy

Vector Quantities
Vectors need both a magnitude and a direction to describe them (also a point of application) When expressing vectors as a symbol, you need to adopt a recognized notation e.g. They need to be added, subtracted and multiplied in a special way Examples :- velocity, weight, acceleration, displacement, momentum, force

Addition and Subtraction

The Resultant (Net) is the result vector that

comes from adding or subtracting a number of vectors If vectors have the same or opposite directions the addition can be done simply same direction : add opposite direction : subtract

Co-planar vectors
The addition of co-planar vectors that do not have the same or opposite direction can be solved by using scale drawings to get an accurate resultant Or if an estimation is required, they can be drawn roughly or by Pythagoras theorem and trigonometry Vectors can be represented by a straight line segment with an arrow at the end

Triangle of Vectors
Two vectors are added by drawing to scale

and with the correct direction the two vectors with the tail of one at the tip of the other. The resultant vector is the third side of the triangle and the arrow head points in the direction from the free tail to the free tip

Example
R=a+b
a + b =

Parallelogram of Vectors
Place the two vectors tail to tail, to scale

and with the correct directions Then complete the parallelogram The diagonal starting where the two tails meet and finishing where the two arrows meet becomes the resultant vector

Example

R=a+b
a + b =

More than 2
If there are more than 2 co-planar vectors

to be added, place them all head to tail to form polygon when the resultant is drawn from the free tail to the free tip.
Notice that the order doesnt matter!

Subtraction of Vectors
To subtract a vector, you reverse the

direction of that vector to get the negative of it Then you simply add that vector

Example

R = a + (- b)
-b

Multiplying Scalars
Scalars are multiplied and divided in the

normal algebraic manner

Do not forget units! 5m / 2s = 2.5 ms-1 2kW x 3h = 6 kWh (kilowatt-hours)

Multiplying Vectors
A vector multiplied by a scalar gives a vector with the same direction as the vector and magnitude equal to the product of the scalar and a vector magnitude A vector divided by a scalar gives a vector with same direction as the vector and magnitude equal to the vector magnitude divided by the scalar You dont need to be able to multiply a vector by another vector

Resolving Vectors
The process of finding the Components of

vectors is called Resolving vectors

Just as 2 vectors can be added to give a

resultant, a single vector can be split into 2 components or parts

The Rule
A vector can be split into two perpendicular

components These could be the vertical and horizontal components

Vertical component

Horizontal component

 Or parallel to and perpendicular to an

inclined plane

 These vertical and horizontal components

could be the vertical and horizontal components of velocity for projectile motion
Or the forces perpendicular to and along an

inclined plane

Doing the Trigonometry

V y

Sin = opp/hyp = y/V

Therefore y = Vsin In this case this is the vertical component Cos = adj/hyp = x/V Therefore x = Vcos In this case this is the horizontal component V cos

x V sin

Quick Way
If you resolve through the angle it is cos If you resolve not through the angle it is

sin

Adding 2 or More Vectors by Components

First resolve into components (making sure

that all are in the same 2 directions) Then add the components in each of the 2 directions Recombine them into a resultant vector This will involve using Pythagoras theorem

Question
Three strings are attached to a small metal

ring. 2 of the strings make an angle of 70o and each is pulled with a force of 7N. What force must be applied to the 3rd string to keep the ring stationary?

Answer
Draw a diagram 7 cos 35o + 7 cos 35o 7N 7N 70o 7 sin 35o 7 sin 35o

Horizontally 7 sin 35o - 7 sin 35o = 0

Vertically 7 cos 35o + 7 cos 35o = F F = 11.5N And at what angle? 145o to one of the strings.