IN TROPICS

(India)

by: Ramanujam.S

INTRODUCTION
Soils are natural bodies in which plants grow Nature of soil differs from area to area and so different types of soils that are occurring throughout the country need a detailed description.

Geographical & physio graphical location (rock types& landforms)

Climate factor (temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind flow etc)

These two factor is mainly consider for classification of soils & vegetation in any region in the world.

Purpose of Soil Classification

To enable us systematic study of soils To determine the relationship between the different kinds of soils. To know how they can be best used. To estimate the productivity of soils under different management practices.

Soil Classification
There are six categories in the Soil Taxonomy

Order

Sub order

Great Group

Subgroup

Family

Series

Modern system of soil classification

The soils in the world can be assigned to one of just 12 orders by USDA system. Soil orders are frequently defined by a single dominant characteristic affecting soils in that location, e.g., the prevalent vegetation, the type of parent material or the climate variables such as lack of precipitation or the presence of permafrost or the amount of physical and chemical weathering present or the relative amount of Soil Profile Development that has taken place.

Table 1. Brief descriptions of the 12 soil orders according to Soil Taxonomy. Soil orders ALFISOLS ANDISOLS ARIDISOLS ENTISOLS GELISOLS HISTOSOLS
(marshy soil)

Description
Soils with a clayey B horizon Found in cool to hot humid areas, & in the semiarid tropics Form in volcanic ash and cinders near or downwind from volcanic activity. Generally lacking in development Soils of arid region, such as desert soils. Some are saline. light in color, and low in organic matter content. Water deficiency is dominant characteristic Soils with little or no horizon development in the profile. mostly derived from alluvial materials. Occur in areas where a very dry or cold climate limits soil profile development. Soils with permafrost within 2 M of the surface & have limited profile development. Large areas of this soil occur in Northern regions of Russia, Canada, and Alaska. Soils rich in organic matter. Generally consist of at least half organic materials (by volume) Form in wetland areas of any climate where plants can grow such as bogs, marshes, and swamps, Latin word mollis, meaning soft. These mineral soils have developed on grasslands, a vegetation that has extensive fibrous root systems. Soils are in the beginning stages of soil profile development. Commonly found throughout world, and prominent in mountainous regions. composed of highly weathered tropical & subtropical soils formed in hot, humid climates that receive a lot of rainfall ,located in equatorial regions. Form in sandy parent materials under coniferous forest vegetation. coarse texture, have a high leaching potential. associated with a cool and wet climate, They are acidic, leached soils from humid areas of the tropics and subtropics. Intensely weathered soils of warm and humid climates. Dark clay soils containing large amounts of swelling clay minerals (smectite). The soils crack during the dry season & become very sticky in the wet season. formed in warm, subhumid or semi-arid climates,

MOLLISOLS INCEPTISOLS OXISOLS

(weathered soil)

SPODOSOLS ULTISOLS VERTISOLS

(black soil)

Major Soil Groups in India

Volcker (1893) and Reathee (1898), classified the Indian soils into 4 groups 1.Indo-gangetic alluvium, 2.Black cotton, 3.Red and 4.Laterite soils. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups Alluvial Soils Black soils Red soils Laterite soils

Forest and Mountain Soils Arid and Desert Soils Saline and Alkaline Soils Peaty and Marshy Soils

Geographical Situation
India has a geographical area of 327.4 million hectares. Sub-continent lies between 8o 37o north latitude and 69o- 93o east longitude. Northern boundary of country has a chain of Himalayas extending all along northern side, bordering Pakistan on west and Burma on east. Remaining south, east and west borders are surrounded by Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal' and Arabian sea respectively.

Climate
Climate of India is of monsoon type. Two distinct periods of rainfall in a year, viz. the south-west monsoon during the months of June-September and the northeast monsoon during the winter months. Climate is influenced by the Himalayan mountains as well as the Indian ocean, the Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal. Temperature is equally variable like rainfall. Temperature rises continually during summer months (March to June).

Physiography The major physiographic divisions of our country .

1.The Northern mountains Western & Eastern Himalayas 2.The great plains Indus plains, Ganga plains and Brahmaputra Valley. Occur between the northern mountains and the peninsula. 3.The Peninsula Consists of central uplands, Deccan plateau, eastern plateau western hills eastern hills and coastal plains 4.The islands Small in land area, consist of Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal islands.

Alluvial Soil
the largest and the most important soil group of India. Covers 40% of the land area. They are composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves. Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. Usually deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed). In fact entire Northern Plains are made up of these soils. Brought down and deposited by three great Himalayan rivers- Sutlej, Ganga and Brahmaputra- and their tributaries. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan they extend into plains of Gujarat. Common in eastern coastal plains and in deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. Can be divided into old & new alluvium Old alluvium soil posses well developed horizons.sub surface of soils are reddish brown or grey brown sandy loam or loamy in texture& sub soil contain more clay than surface soil. Texture of new alluvium is very coarse on the river banks and very fine in low lying marshy lands.

Black Soil (ideal for cotton crop).

These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago. Black due to compounds of iron and aluminum (because of titaniferous magnetite). Mainly found in Deccan Plateau Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, AP, TN Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing food grain, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane. They have high moisture retention level. Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter Typical of Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over north-west Deccan plateau and are made up of lava flows. Cover plateaus of Mahrashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa and southern Madhya Pradesh and extend eastwards along Godavari and Krishna Valleys. Can be divided into 3 Groups, Shallow black soil (depth 30-50cm),texture varies from silty loam to loam & color that varies from dark yellowish brown to dark brown Medium black soil (depth50-120 cm), Deep black soil(depth above 120cm).texture in both case varies from slity clay to clay. both contain 40 to 60 % or more clay, color of these soils varies from deep black to light black.

Red Soil
They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term red soil is due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the materials of the soil. Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkand and Bundelkhand. Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash. Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher elevations).
It include red loam soil, red & yellow soils & reds sandy soils. As basic elements have been leached from most of these soils, they become acidic in reaction. These soil differ greatly in fertility and depth.

Laterite Soil

(Later means brick)

Result of intense leaching owing to heavy tropical rains. Found in typical monsoon conditions under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, WB, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc. Poor in nitrogen and minerals. Best for tea, coffee, rubber, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if manured.

They are usually shallow and gravelly at higher lands, but are very deep loam to clay soils in valleys where good paddy crops are produces on them. not sticky and plastic when wet. Excellent physical condition due to presence of hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum & kaolinite as the dominating clay minerals.

Forest and Mountain Soils

Cover nearly 14% of total area, such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth. In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less steeply inclined slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular region. Very rich in humus(by fallen leaves) but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers. Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits. Developed from acidic parent material, are poor in basic elements

Saline and Alkaline Soils

In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline soils. Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the sub-soils of the plains. Accumulation of salts makes soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture

Arid and Desert Soils

A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions. This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth. The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but its deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is available.

Peaty and Marshy Soils

Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soil. They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 40% of organic matter. Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari. Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP

General properties
Some of the tropical soils are considerably different from temperate region soils because the clays are mainly hydrous oxides instead of the temperate silicates clays, thus the properties of hydrous oxides require different techniques in soil management. Hydrous oxide clays have a very low capacity to hold nutrients so require continual frequent renewal of nutrients by additions for adequate plant growth. The low capacity to hold nutrients also requires careful use of lime, as over liming can easily occur resulting in certain nutrient deficiencies or toxicities. An advantage of hydrous oxides is their ability to be worked shortly after a rain. Most silicates clay minerals become very sticky when wet, whereas the hydrous oxides can be worked within a few hours after a rain. Often weather condition of high temperature and abundant rainfall result in tropical rain forest. The soils developed under these conditions are highly weathered and much of the nutrients have been leached to lower layers within the soil.

Table 3. Geographical distribution of soils in the humid and semi-arid tropics (millions of hectares). 1) Data from NAP (1982). 2) Data adapted from Kampen and Burford (1980). Part of the subhumid tropics is included

Soil order Humid Tropics1) Oxisols Ultisols Alfisols Others Total Semi-arid Tropics2) Alfisols Ultisols Others Total

Tropical Africa

Tropical Asia

Tropical America

Total

Percent

179 69 21 176 445

14 131 15 219 379

332 213 18 103 666

525 413 54 498 1490

35 28 4 33 100

466 24 972 1462

121 20 178 319

107 8 198 313

694 52 1348 2094

33 1 66 100

Vegetation classification
Types of vegetation in India vary depending upon environment, Climate, soil quality, topography and altitude. These factors are responsible for natural diversity in forests There are several types of forests scattered throughout Indian landscape. Primarily there are 6 major groups, namely, Moist Tropical, Dry Tropical, Montane Sub Tropical, Montane Temperate, Sub Alpine, Alpine.

A. Most Tropical Forests:

They are divided into 4 groups and each group is further sub-divided into subgroups which in turn are further splits into formations and associations.
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest: Such forests found in regions with rainfall over 2500 mm per annum, mostly in western Ghats and along south west of Assam. sal are the main trees. Torpical Semi-Evergreen Forests: This is found along the Western Ghats adjoining wet ever green forests i.e., in Assam and lower attitudes of Eastern Himalayas, Orissa, Malabar Coast and Andaman's. Rainfall varies from 200-2500 mm. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests: This type of forest is found in typical rainfall range of 1500-2000mm. In U.P., Bihar, Orissa, North Bengal. Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. And Kerala etc. These areas are characterized by most teak forests.

Littoral and 'Swamp Forests These are further subdivided into two subgroups: (a) The littoral forests (b) The tidal swamp forests (a) The littoral forests occur all along the sea coasts and along the sandy bars of deltas of the larger rivers. (b) The tidal swamp forests are further divided into 5 types: (i) Mangrove scrub, (ii) Mangrove forests, (iii) Salt water mixed forests, (iv) Brakish water mixed forests and (v) Palm swamp. The Sunder bans (W.B.) and the Bhitar Kanika (Orissa) mangrove forests come under this category.

B. Dry Tropical Forests:

They are divided into three groups: Tropical dry Deciduous Forests: All the forests of North India i.e., Bihar, U.P., Punjab, Haryana of non-teak and teak bearing types come under this. Tropical Thorn Forests: These are distributed in areas of low rainfall (250-750 mm per annum) in both southern and Northern regions of India i.e., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, U.P., M.P., Maharashtra, A.P. etc. Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests: These are dense forests of coniferous leaved evergreen forests.

C. Montane Subtropical Forests:

These are further divided into three groups. 1. (i) Subtropical Broad leaved hill forests : (a) Nigeria Subtropical hill forests (b) South Indian subtropical Hill savannah (c) Reed brakes (d) Western subtropical hill forest (e) Central Indian sub-tropical Hill Forests. (ii) Northern subtropical Broad-leaved hill forests: (a) East Himalayan Sub-tropical wet hill forests (b) Khasi sub-tropical wet Hill forests (c) Assam subtropical pine forests (d) Assam subtropical Hill Savannah 2. Sub-tropical pine Forests: These are found in U.P., H.P. and Assam through out the entire contour of the western and central Himalayas. 3. Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests: Those forests contain small leaved evergreen trees and shrubs including some thorn species.

D. Montane Temperate Forests:

They are divided into three groups: Montane Wet Temperate Forest: This type occurs in the east Himalayas from East Nepal to Bengal, Assam . Himalayas Moist Temperate Forests: These forests occur above 1,500 M & extended up to 3,000 meters in the western and central Himalayas. Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest: These are open forest composed of evergreen conifers and some broad leaved trees. They occur above 1700 m

E. Sub-alpine Forests:
These forests occur in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Assam and Manipur, They occur at an altitudinal range of 2,900 m to 3,500 m.

F. Alpine Scrub Forest:

These forests extent from 3,600 mtrs. Above. They are well distributed in Kashmir, West Kumauni in UP and along western Himalays from 2,900 mtrs. to 4,250 mtrs.

Forest cover
Tropical moist forests-33.92% Tropical dry forests-30.16%, Tropical evergreen-12.39% Montane temperate-7.52% Sub tropical -6.73% Tropical thorn -5.11% Alpine & sub alpine-3.79% Swamp ( mangrove)-0.38%

Distribution of Soils in India

Sl.No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Soil groups
Red loamy Red sandy Laterite Red & yellow Shallow black Medium black Deep black Mixed red & black Coastal alluvium Coastal sands Deltaic alluvium Alluvial (Recent & old) Alluvial (Calcareous) Calcareous sierozemic Grey brown Desert Tarai Brown hill Sub montane Mountain meadow Saline and alkali Peaty Skeletal Glaciers & eternal snow Others

Area (M.ha) Distribution in the states

21.3 33.0 13.0 40.3 3.1 43.0 11.2 16.2 5.4 0.45 8.70 35.67 1.3 4.5 10.1 18.2 2.8 8.1 7.6 5.9 1.7 0.27 7.9 2.9 24.9 AP, TN, KT, KR, MP, O, R TN, KT, AP, B, WB TN, KR, KT, AP, GJ, O, M, G, A, WB, AN MP, O, B M M, MP, GJ, AP, KT, R M, AP, KT, MP, GJ, R KT, TN, M, MP, AP, B TN, KR, KT, AP, M, G, WB, AN O, TN, AP, PO TN, AP, O, WB UP, P, B, WB, A, H, AP, GJ, JK, HR, MP, R, D UP, B P, H, R GJ, R R, G, H UP, B, WB, AN UP, S, HP, GJ, JK, KR, P, WB UP, JK, HP JK UP, H, P, M, KR, TN, GJ, R KR, WB MP UP, JK -

Symbols for states- AN-Andaman & Nicobar islands; AP Andhra Pradesh; A-Assam; B-Bihar; D-Delhi; G-Goa; GJ-Gujarat; H-Haryana; HP-Himachal Pradesh; JK-Jammu & Kashmir; KTKarnataka; KR-Kerala; MP-Madhya Pradesh; M-Maharashtra; O-Odhisa; PO-Pondicherry; P- Punjab; R-Rajasthan; TN- Tamil Nada; UP-Uttar Pradesh; WB- West Bengal.

Bibliography
Basic concepts of soil science by A.K.Kolay Hand book of soils for landscape architects by robert f.keefer http://www.indianetzone.com/40/natural_vegetation_india.htm http://www.mapsofindia.com/andaman-nicobar-islands/geographyand-history/soil-vegetation.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Rainforest_of_India http://india-garg.blogspot.in/ http://www.preservearticles.com/201107058730/classification-ofindian-forest-types.html

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