CHAPTER 3

Frequency Modulation
Objectives: After completing this chapter, you will be able to;
1. Calculate the modulation index given the maximum deviation and the maximum modulating frequency and use the modulation index and Bessel coefficient to determine the number of significant sideband in an FM signal. 2. Calculate the bandwidth of an FM signal using (1) the modulation index and Bessel functions and (2) Carsons rule, and explain the practical significance of the difference between two methods. 3. Explain how pre-emphasis is used to solve the problem of the interference of high-frequency components by noise. 4. List the advantages of and disadvantages of FM as compared to AM. 5. Give reasons for FMs superior immunity to noise.
1

Introduction
The same person who developed the superheterodyne receiver was also responsible for the development of an alternative to AM that is Major E.H Armstrong. Standard FM broadcast band from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Although AM broadcast was dominant type for many years, FM has been the most popular since 1970s because it provides; - Much clearer signals, much lower distortion, less noise and static.
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Introduction
There are only three (3) parameters of a carrier wave that can be changed or modulated in order for it to carry information amplitude, frequency and phase. Frequency and phase are closely related and can be group together in the term angle modulation.
Phase modulation produces frequency modulation. Since the amount of phase shift is varying, the effect is as if the carrier frequency is changed. PM is often referred to as indirect FM. PM used extensively in data communication.
3

FM Principles
Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal. If the modulation system is properly designed, it is said that this deviation is proportional to the amplitude of modulating signal referred as linear modulation. The frequency of modulating signal determines how many times per second the carrier freq deviates above and below its nominal center freq. Eg: If the modulating signal is a 100 Hz sine wave, then the carrier frequency will shift above and below the center frequency 100 times per second. This is called the frequency deviation rate.
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Carrier wave Voltage + (a) 0 _ time

Voltage + (b) 0 _ No signal

Modulating wave

time

Positive maximum deviation

Zero deviation

Negative maximum deviation

Voltage + (c) 0 _

Frequency Modulation wave

time

FM Principles
In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant while the carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.

As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency shifts in proportion.
As the modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies above and below its normal center frequency with no modulation. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known as the frequency deviation

Sidebands and Modulation Index

Any modulation process produces sidebands. In FM, sum and difference sideband frequencies are produced. Spectrum of FM signal is usually wider than an equivalent AM signal.

Although FM process produces an infinite number of upper and lower sidebands, only those with the largest amplitudes are significant in carrying the information.
Typically any sideband with an amplitude less than 1 percent of the unmodulated carrier is considered insignificant.
7

Modulation Index and Deviation Ratio

As indicated earlier, the number of significant sidebands and their amplitudes are dependent upon the amount of frequency deviation and the modulating frequency. The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation index, m. m = fd = frequency deviation

fm

modulating frequency

In most communications systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the modulating frequency. Eg: The max permitted freq deviation = 75 kHz and the max permitted modulating freq = 15 kHz.
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Spectrum Frequency of FM signal

Carrier

Lower sidebands

Upper sidebands

f c -6 f m f c -5f m f c -4 f m f c -3f m f c -2f m f c -f m f c f c + f m f c +2f m f c +3f m f c +4f m f c +5 f m f c +6 f m

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Determining the number of Significant Sidebands

Knowing the modulation index, you can compute the number and amplitudes of the significant sidebands. This is done through a complex mathematical process (beyond the scope of this text) known as the Bessel functions. The spectrum of an FM signal varies considerably in bandwidth depending upon the modulation index. The higher the modulation index, the wider the bandwidth of the FM signal.

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Bessel Functions
Modulation Index 0.00 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 15.0

Sidebands
Carrier

1.00 0.98 0.94 0.77 0.51 0.22 -0.05 -0.26 -0.40 -0.18 0.15 0.30 0.17 -0.09 -0.25

1 2 4 3 0.12 0.24 0.03 0.44 0.11 0.02 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01 0.58 0.50 0.34 -0.07 -0.33 -0.28 0.00 0.23 0.24 0.04 0.35 0.45 0.49 0.36 0.05 -0.24 -0.03 -0.11 0.14 0.25 0.13 0.22 0.31 0.43 0.36 0.03 0.07 0.13 0.28 0.39

5 -

6 -

7 -

8 -

9 -

10 -

11 -

12 -

13 -

14 -

15 -

16 -

0.02 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.26 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.30 0.35 0.19 -0.06 -0.23 0.25 0.34 0.34 0.20 -0.01 0.13 0.23 0.32 0.33 0.22 0.06 0.13 0.22 0.30 0.31

0.11 0.36 -0.17 0.16 -0.29 -0.10 -0.18 -0.27 0.06 -0.22

0.02 0.06 0.13 0.21 0.29

0.02 0.06 0.03 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.20 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01

-0.05 -0.22 -0.80 0.20 0.18 0.07 -0.24 -0.17 0.05 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 -0.01 0.21 0.04 0.19 -0.12 0.13 0.21 0.03 -0.17 -0.22 -0.09 0.10 0.24 0.28

0.07 0.03 0.01 0.25 0.18 0.12

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Bandwidth
The total bandwidth can be determine by knowing the modulation index and using the Bessel table.

The bandwidth can be determined using simple formula,

BW = 2 x N x fm(max)
Number of significant sidebands Maximum modulating freq

An alternative way to calculate the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carsons rule.

BW = 2 (fd(max) + fm(max) )
Max freq deviation
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0.77 m= 1

0.58

0.58

m= 2

0.44

0.44

0.35 0.22 0.13

0.35

0.13 0.03

0.11 0.02 fc-3fm fc-2fm fc-fm fc fc+fm

0.11 0.02 fc+2fm fc+3fm

0.03 fc-4fm fc-3fm fc-2fm fc-fm fc

fc+fm fc+2fm fc+3fm fc+4fm

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Given fm = 10 kHz and frequency deviation= 20 kHz. Draw the spectrum frequency

0.58

0.58

0.35 0.22 0.13 0.03

0.35

0.13 0.03

fc-40 kHz fc-30 kHz fc-20 kHz fc-10 kHz fc fc+10 kHz fc+20 kHz fc+30 kHz fc+40 kHz

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FM versus AM
In general, FM is considered to be superior to AM. Although both modulation types are suitable for transmitting information from one place to another, capable of equivalent fidelity(accuracy with which an electronic system reproduces the sound or image of its input signal) and intelligibility. FM offers some significant benefits over AM:
1. Better noise immunity it rejects interfering signals because of the capture effects . Provides better transmitter efficiency.

2.

Its disadvantage uses an excessive amount of spectrum space.

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Capture Effect
If the signal of one is more than twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger signal capture the channel and will totally eliminate the weaker, interfering signal. This is known as capture effect in FM. As long as the desired signal is considerably stronger than the interfering signal, that will be ok. In FM, the capture effect allows the stronger signal to dominate while the weaker signal is eliminated.

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Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis

Despite the fact that FM has superior noise rejection qualities, noise still interferes with an FM signal. This is true for high-freq components in the modulating signal. Eg: music. High-freq components are of a lower amplitudes.

20 kHz

70 kHz
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Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis

To overcome this, most FM systems use a technique known as pre-emphasis helps to offset high-freq noise interference. To return the frequency response to its normal level, a de-emphasis circuit is used at the receiver. As a result, the pre-emphasis at the transmitter is exactly offset by the de-emphasis circuit in the receiver, providing a normal frequency response. The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the high-freq components during the transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.
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Pre-emphasis

dB
C

R1 Frequency Modulator Input signal

Pre-emphasis FM output

6dB/ oktaf

R2

3dB 0

Pre-emphasis circuit

2122 Hz

fu 30 kHz

Hz

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De-emphasis

De-emphasis circuit
0

dB

FM

FM demodulator

Audio output

-3dB

2122 Hz

Hz

20

Frequency response combination

dB

+3dB

-3dB

f1=1/2R1C Where t=R1C

t=75ms f=1/t=2.123 kHz

Hz

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Frequency Modulators
A frequency modulators is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.

The carrier is generated by either an LC or a crystal oscillator circuit, and so a way must be found to change the frequency of oscillation.
In an LC oscillator, the carrier freq is fixed by the values of the inductance and capacitance in a tuned circuit. The carrier freq, therefore can be changed by varying either inductance or capacitance.

22

Tuned Circuit

Xc
AC

XL

XC

XL Ri

Series Tuned Circuit

Parallel Tuned Circuit

23

Varactor Modulators
The main problem with the circuit is that most LC oscillators are simply not stable enough to provide a carrier signal. The frequency of LC oscillators will vary because of temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage and other factors. Such instabilities cannot be tolerated in most modern electronic communication systems, where a transmitter must stay on freq. as precisely as possible.

As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set carrier frequency. It is stable in wide temperature range.
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Voltage Variable Capacitor

Positive signal at point A adds to the reverse bias, decreasing the capacitance and increasing the carrier frequency Negative signal at point A subtracts from the bias, increasing the capacitance and decreasing the carrier frequency
To Carrier Oscillator

Radio Frequency Choke: To prevent the carrier signal from getting into the modulating cct
Amplifier RFC

-V

R1 A

C2

L1

C1

L1 and C1 as tuned cct

D1

Mikrofon

C3

R2

Blocking capacitor that keeps the dc bias out of the modulating signal cct

Varactor diodeControlled by 2 factors: -fixed dc bias by voltage divider R1 and R2 25 -modulating signal

Freq-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator

It is possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator by changing the value of capacitance in series or in parallel with the crystal. When a small value of capacitance is connected in series with the crystal, the crystal frequency can be pulled slightly from its natural resonant frequency. By making the series capacitance a varactor diode, frequency modulation of the crystal can be achieved. The modulating signal is applied to varactor diode D1, which changes the oscillator frequency.

26

+V

RFC FM output Crystal

Modulating signal

D1
27

Frequency Demodulators
Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the carrier back into a proportional voltage can be used to demodulate or detect FM signals. Circuit used to recover the original modulating signal from an FM transmission are called demodulators, detectors or discriminators. The earliest demodulator: 1. Foster-Seeley Discriminators

2. Ratio Detector

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Foster-Seeley Discriminators

Cc

D1

R3

Output

+
Cb V1 V3 C a V2 T1 D2 RFC V 2-3 Ce Y VY V 1-3 Cd VX R1 Cf

R2

29

Ratio Detector

C3

D1

C2

V1-3

C4

C D

R1

+
C6

C1

RFC V2-3 C5

R2

T1 D2

30

Phase modulator
Use PM to produce indirect FM. The simplest phase shifters are RC networks(a) & (b). Depending on the values of Rand C, the output of the phase shifter can be set to any phase between 0o to 90o

31

(c ) Transistor modulator - Simple phase shift cct as a phase modulator. - the transistor act as a variable resistor (as in cct (a)) that varies in response to the modulating signal. -Vm , the transistor base current and collector increase. Therefore, the effective transistor resistance decrease. R , it will increase the phase shift. - Vm , IB and IC decrease, R transistor increase R , it will decrease the phase shift.

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(d ) Varactor modulator - Use VVC as a low-pass phase shift modulator. -Vm cause the capacitance of the varactor to change. -Vm ,it adds to the varactor bias from R1 and R2 , cause the capacitance to decrease. The Reactance , and produce less phase shift. - Vm , substracts to VVC bias, increasing the capacitance. The Reactance , and increase the amount of phase shift.

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