Chapter 5 Learning Learning (Basic Process of Learning) 2010

What is learning?
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior, or behavior potential, produced by experience. Several aspects from this definition are noteworthy: 1- The change must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes resulting from illness, or hunger are excluded from a general definition of learning. 2- The change must be brought about by experience. Changes caused by maturation, such as growing taller, do not qualify as learning.
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How learning happens?

1- Classical Conditioning: One of the earliest explanations of learning came from Aristotle. He said that we remember things together (1)when they are similar, (2)(2) when they contrast, and (3)(3) when they are contiguous. The principle of contiguity states that whenever two or more sensations occur together often enough, they will become associated. Later, when only one of these sensations (a stimulus) occurs, the other will be remembered too (a response). Contiguity plays a major role in another learning process best known as classical conditioning We will discuss the first type of learning to be discovered and studied within the behaviorist tradition (hence the name classical). The researcher with which classical conditioning is most often associated is Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and became intrigued with his observation that dogs deprived of food began to salivate when one of his assistants walked into the room. He began to investigate these phenomena and established the laws of classical conditioning.

Pavlovs Experiment
in one of his experiments he attached a tube to the salivary gland of the dog that helped him to measure precisely the amount of salivation that occurred. Then, he sounded the bell few minutes after which he presented the dog with meat powder. While pairing the sound of bell and the presentation of meat powder Pavlov made sure that exactly the same amount of time lapsed between the presentation of sound and the meat. Salivating to the meat is a natural response. When meat is placed on the mouth of the dog it would salivate because of the biological makeup of the dog. Hence the meat in the above experiment is called the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation produced in response to presentation of meat is an unconditioned response (UR).
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In classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus produces and unconditioned response (i.e. salivating). The unconditioned stimulus is paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus (i.e. tone of a bell). The neutral stimulus ideally occurs immediately before the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus. After multiple pairings an association between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is formed and the neutral stimulus alone will produce the unconditioned response. The neutral stimulus is then called the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response is called the conditioned response. (i.e. the bell alone makes the dog salivate).

The first American follower of Pavlov was John Watson. His best known experiment was conducted in 1920. Little Albert B, an 11 month old child, was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise (which leads to the startle reflex, i.e. a good scare). His fear quickly generalized to white rabbits, fur coats, and even cotton. Later, another child, three year old Peter, was gradually de-conditioned from his fear of white rabbits by pairing white rabbits with milk and cookies and other positive things. But we should note that, even if they didn't "de-condition" him, he would have eventually lost his fear, a process called extinction
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The major principles in classical conditioning

Generalization: After the dogs learned to salivate in response to hearing one particular sound, they would also salivate after hearing similar tones that were slightly higher or lower. This process is called generalization because the conditioned response of salivating generalized or occurred in the presence of similar stimuli. Discrimination Pavlov could also teach the dog's discrimination (to respond to one tone but not to others that are similar) by making sure that food always followed only one tone, not any others. Extinction: Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (food). The conditioned response (salivating) gradually fades away and finally is extinguished (it disappears altogether).

Applications of classical conditioning:

(1) To form good habits (2) To break bad ones (smoking, overeating, etc.), including phobias or anxiety-producing conditioning.

Operant Conditioning (Learning based on consequences )

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. This is operant conditioning: the behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future. Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner both played major roles in developing knowledge of operant conditioning. Thorndike established the basis for operant conditioning, but the person generally thought to be responsible for developing the concept is B. F. Skinner (1953).
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Thorndike's Law of Effect:

Thorndike (1898) formulated the law of effect, which stated as follow: responses that are closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and therefore more likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated. Conversely, if the situation is followed by discomfort, the connections to the situation will become weaker and the behavior of response is less likely to occur when the situation is repeated. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndikes law of effect. Skinner proposed the term reinforcer to refer to a stimulus change that occurs after a response and that increase the subsequent frequency of that response. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning to refer to any change of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.

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Reinforcement (strengthens behavior):

Operant conditioning leads to either an increase or decrease the probability that these operant behavior will be performed again. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is a stimulus event that increase the probability that the operant associated with the stimulus will happen again. Reinforcement refers to any process that increases the likelihood that a particular response will occur. There are two types of reinforcement: 1- Positive reinforcement is a positive stimulus event that follows an operant and whose occurrence strengthens the associated behavior response. For example, if your teacher gives you 5 dirham each time you complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you are more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future 2- Negative reinforcement is the effect that results from the removal or the stopping of an unpleasant stimulus, such as physical or psychological pain. For example, if you do not complete your homework you give your teacher 5 Dirham. You will complete your homework to avoid paying 5 dirham, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. In both of these types of reinforcement, the behavior increases. Behavior followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future.

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Punishment (weakens behavior):

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. It is the process through which the consequence of a response decreases the likelihood that the response will recur. Punishment can be positive or negative: A) Positive punishment: Positive punishment is something that is applied to reduce a behavior. here "positive" means "added" . Also keep in mind that in these terms, it is not the animal that is "punished" but the behavior that is "punished" (in other words, reduced). Positive punishment, when applied correctly, is the most effective way to stop unwanted behaviors. A behavior followed by an aversive stimulus results in a decreased probability of the behavior occurring in the future. For example: A child steals sweets from cupboard. The child is caught by parent and smacked (punished). He is less likely to steal again (or will be more careful about it next time)

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B) Negative punishment Negative punishment describes the removal of a positive stimulus as a behavioral consequence (e. g. the opportunity to watch television). It is worth reemphasizing that the stimulus that is presented in positive punishment is usually a painful or otherwise aversive stimulus, while those stimuli that act as negative (removed) punishers are usually soughtafter or appetitive stimuli. In both of these types of punishment, the behavior decreases.
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There are a number of potential problems associated with the use of punishment: 1. According to Skinner, punishment does not extinguish an undesirable behavior; rather, it suppresses that behavior when the punishing agent is present. 2. Punishment indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behaviors. If punishment is used, it should be administered in conjunction with reinforcement or rewards for appropriate behavior. 3. The person who is severely punished often becomes fearful and feels angry and hostile toward the punisher. 4. Punishment frequently leads to aggression. Those who administer physical punishment may become models of aggressive behavior
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+ and - Reinforcement
TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES

Reinforcement
Positive (add / apply)
Pleasant consequence

Punishment
Aversive consequence added. Weakens Rs Receiving , slap Pleasant stimulus

added. Strengthens Rs Receiving , Aversive stimulus

Negative (subtract / remove)

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removed. Strengthens Rs Removing cold

removed. Weakens Rs Time out

Skinner (1938) described two types of reinforcing stimuli: primary and secondary reinforcers. 1- A primary reinforcer is anything that has the power to increase behavioral probabilities because it is involved with a biological need of the organism. Food, sleep and temperature stabilities are often used as reinforcement because we need them as a species. Escape from pain and social acceptance/contact can also be considered as primary reinforcers . 2-A secondary reinforcer is anything that can increase the probability of behavior because of its reliable association with primary reinforcers. most human reinforcers are secondary, or conditioned. Examples include money, grades in schools, and tokens.
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Major principles of the Operant Conditioning Theory:

Shaping or the method of successive approximations. Behavior Shaping, is particularly effective in conditioning complex behaviors. With shaping, rather than waiting for the desired response to occur and then reinforcing it, a researcher reinforces any movement in the direction of the desired response, gradually guiding the responses closer and closer to the ultimate goal. Parents may use shaping to help their children develop good table manners, praising them each time they show an improvement. Teachers often use shaping with disruptive children, reinforcing them at first for very short periods of good behavior and then gradually expecting them to work productively for longer and longer periods. Extinction: In operant conditioning a person or an animal will not persist in a certain behavior if the usual reinforcer is withheld long enough. The behavior will eventually be extinguished (stop). For example, if a rat presses a bar in its cage and nothing happens. Neither a positive nor a negative condition exists for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again nothing happens. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of not experiencing anything positive or stopping anything negative.

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Generalization: In generalization, a behavior may be performed in more than one situation. For example, A pigeon reinforced for pecking at a yellow disk is likely to peck at another disk similar in color. Discrimination: Learning that a behavior will be rewarded in one situation, but not another. Discrimination is learned when the response to the original stimulus is reinforced but responses to similar stimuli are not reinforced. For example, to encourage discrimination, a researcher would reinforce the pigeon for pecking at the yellow disk but not for pecking at the orange or red disk.

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Observational Learning (Watching and Learning)

Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observers behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observers behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequencescalled vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment of a models behavior. The process of observing and imitating specific behavior is often called modeling. By observing and imitating models we learn all kinds of social behaviors. Bandura and others (1961) have developed their social learning based on social modeling. The person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated is called the model. Parents, movie stars, and sports personalities are often powerful models. The effectiveness of a model is related to his or her status, competence, and power. Other important factors are the age, sex, attractiveness, and ethnicity of the model.
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Steps in Observational Learning

According to Bandura, observational learning takes place through four steps. 1- Attention to the models behavior. 2- Retention: after paying attention to the models behavior, mental image of the models behavior is stored in memory so that it can be retrieved later. 3- Reproducing the action: any specific situation similar to the one stored in memory may trigger the individual to convert remembered behavior into action. 4- Motivation: involves remaining motivated to learn and carry out the behavior. If the action performed by the individual is reinforced he adds it to his behavior repertoire or else it may be gradually wither away.

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Learning Aggression: Copying What We See

Albert Bandura suspected that aggressive behavior is particularly subject to observational learning and that aggression and violence on television programs, including cartoons, tend to increase aggression in children. His pioneering work has greatly influenced current thinking on these issues. In several classic experiments, Bandura demonstrated how children are influenced by exposure to aggressive models.
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Cognitive learning
Many psychologists do not totally agree with an operant or behavioral interpretation of learning. These psychologists stress the role of mental processes. Cognitive theorists hold that cognitive process like perception, thinking and memory play key role in learning. Insight Learning by Kohler and Latent Learning by Tolman may be seen as examples of cognitive learning theories. In sum, the cognitive learning theorists try to study the cognitive processes that underlie learning. Cognitive learning connotes higher-level learning involving knowing, understanding, and anticipation. Cognitive theories also focus on the organism as an active processor of information that modifies new experiences, relates them to past experiences, and organizes this information for storage and retrieval. Cognitive psychologists also recognize that learning can take place in the absence of overt behavior.
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The cognitive theory sees learning as "transforming significant understanding we already have, rather than simple acquisitions written on blank slates". Instead of being passively influenced by the environment events, people actively choose, reflect, practice, pay attention, ignore, and make many other decisions as they peruse their goals. According to the cognitive view of learning, Knowledge is learned, and change in knowledge make changes in behavior possible. Both behavioral and cognitive theorists believe reinforcement is important in learning, but for different reasons. Cognitive theorists see reinforcement as a source of feedback about what is likely to happen if behaviors are repeated or change as a source of information.
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