Professional Documents
Culture Documents
intentionally blank
Introduction
To obtain your FCC Technician license you will have to pass a test covering; radio Law, operating procedures and technical knowledge. From experience we have found that most wrong answers during testing are on the law and procedures. We assume that is because most taking a cram course have developed some technical knowledge. You must know Ohms law algebra or memorize same from the question pool to pass the test. You must also memorize some other data from the FCC rules. Review any license manual before you come to a cram. One is; The ARRL Ham Radio License Manual #9639, at 1-800-326-3942 or www.arrl.org/shop. The entire question pool is in most license manuals and on the web. You can take practice exams using the Internet; www.qrz.com. Your library and community college have public access web terminals. We will cover all of the questions material in this class.
Frequency
Frequency is the number of AC cycles/second.
Hertz (Hz) is the unit for cycles per second. 60 Hz is 60 cycles per second.
Radio frequencies (RF) over 20,000 Hz. Electromagnetic waves travel @ speed of light.
The distance a radio wave travels in one cycle is its wavelength, higher frequencies have shorter wavelength.
Electrical units
Volts (E); electromotive force Amps (I); current, electron flow Ohms (R); resistance to current flow Henry (L); inductance, passes DC, opposes AC.
Energy stored in a electromagnetic field The higher the freqency the higher the reactance.
In series reduces AC current while passing DC. In shunt shorts out DC and Low frequencies.
Electrical Analogies
Volts; water pressure (AC or DC) Current; water flow (AC or DC) Ohms; restriction in pipe (AC or DC.) Henry; pinwheel (turbine) in pipe + flywheel.
Passes DC but impedes AC. The larger the inductance the higher the reactance. The higher the frequency the higher the reactance.
Basic Components
Resistor fixed or variable
Poor conductor and poor insulator
Specify value-ohms
tolerance-% size-watts
How made;
Carbon in epoxy Very thin poor conducting wire Thin film on insulator
Specify capacitance in farads, micro-farads, etc., also capacitance tolarance & working voltage.
AC current and its frequency may also be required.
Component Symbols
R esi stor
+
Potentiometer
C has s is G round
A nt e nn a
C a p a c it o r a d d + if p o la r iz e d
V a r ia ble C a pa c it or
B at t e ry
Air C o re In duc t or
C ore d Inducto r
L am p
V a riab le I nd uc to r
Fuze
T ra n sfo r m e r
AC wall outlet
Light emitting diodes convert current into light. Bipolar and field effect transistors amplify (provide gain) and switch. Integrated Circuits combine multiple functions into one package.
Diode
NPN Bipolor Transistor
Emitter Not-Pointing-in
A no de
Ca th o de
Z en er Dio de
Gate
Drain
Source
Intergrated Circuit IC
DC Measurements
Current meters are amp meters, milliamp meters or microamp meters.
A current meter (amp meter) is used in series with the current (in parallel it may be a short and burn out the meter.)
A volt meter (current meter with resistor in series) is used across (in parallel) the circuit.
A multi meter reads E, I, or R and is also called a VOM (Volt Ohm Milliamp meter.)
Circuit Measurement
Volt meter used across the circuit (in parallel.) Current meter (amp meter) is used in series.
Amps
Load Resistor
What happens when it is connected to the resistor, capacitor and 100v source?
Ohms 100 v 10 v +
Capaticor
Harmonic Distortion
Sum of fundamental and some 3rd harmonic is shown. Its approaching a square wave. Square wave is sum of F +3F +5F. all odd harmonics Distorted sine wave contains harmonics.
High Pass
Passes all frequencies above its cut off frequency.
Band Pass
Passes all frequencies near its center frequency.
Interference
Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) is controlled by good design.
No spurs, splatter or unwanted frequencies from TX. If you receive a complaint check these. Check your TV for the interference.
TV Radio Interference
Turning up the microphone gain to increase power could reduce understanding due to distortion.
Harmonics would be generated by any clipping, or distortion in the transmitter. Splatter is generated by modulation clipping.
Spurious emissions are signals other than desired. Harmonic radiation, splatter and spurious emissions are always the Hams problem.
Filter Applications
A low pass filter at the output of a transmitter will eliminate transmitter harmonics, A 15M technician transmitter (21.1 to 21.2 MHz) with a low
pass filter at 22 MHz will suppress harmonics at 2F (21x2 = 42 MHz) 3F (21x3 = 63 MHz (channel 3)) etc.
A high pass filter at the TV input will prevent front end overload from a close 15 meter transmitter. Adding a band pass filter at the TX output will also eliminate TX spurious emissions. A notch filter (band reject) at the TV could eliminate 2 meter RF overload.
More on Interference
Receiver overload: Interference caused by a strong close signal is receive frequency independent.
Check and tighten coax at transmitter and receiver. If transmitter is OK (your radio &TV is interference free) it is the receiver owners problem. Filtering/shielding of receiver is required, but: The FCC can set your frequencies and hours if the receiver is of good engineering design.
EMI
A neighbors equipment may also cause you interference.
Many appliances generate RF.
Scientific Notation
1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 1 = = = = .01 = .001 = .000001 = .00000001 = .000000000001 = 1 X 109 GIGA 1 X 106 MEGA 1 X 103 KILO 1 X 100 UNIT 1 X 10-2 CENTI 1 X 10-3 MILLI 1 X 10-6 MICRO 1 X 10-9 NANO 1 X 10-12 PICO
The wavelength in a wire is about 0.95 of free space Antenna wavelength (feet) = 985 * 0.95 / frequency (MHz) = 936 / frequency (MHz)
1 / 2 wavelength () antenna (feet) = 468 / frequency (MHz) 1 / 4 wavelength () antenna (feet) = 234 / frequency (MHz) 12 times feet equals inches (234 x 12 = 2808.) 1 / 4 wavelength () antenna (inch) = 2808 / frequency (MHz) Important, add some chalk talk examples or do some yourself.
Simple Antennas
A dipole is a half wavelength ( / 2) antenna.
An easy to make / erect wire HF antenna.
Element # 1 is the reflector Element # 2 is the driven element, Element # 3 is the director.
Max gain (7+ dBi) is away from reflector, just like a flashlight
Parabolic Antennas.
Parabolic reflectors reflect received signals to the focus. Driven element at focus reflects most signals straight out.
Directional antennas are useful for radio direction finding (RDF) and hidden TX / interference finding. Antennas can have loss
A small rubber ducky may have -10 dBi gain or 10 dBi loss, -10 dB is a power reduction of 1/10th or 0.1. In a steel car it may have 20 dBi loss -20 dB is a power reduction of 1/100th or 0.01.
Transmission Lines
Transmission line / feed line connect the radio to a remote antenna.
Losses increase with frequency. Losses increase with mismatch (high standing wave ratio.) Losses heat transmission line.
A BALUN, BALanced to UNbalanced is used between a balanced system (twin lead) & unbalanced (coax.)
Coaxial Cable
Good quality well constructed coaxial cable will minimize RF leakage and loss. Coaxial cable has a center conductor surrounded by an insulator which is covered by a conducting shield.
Coaxial cable is weather proof if solid outer cover. Coaxial cable has an impedance in the range of most amateur antennas with 50 ohms being the most common. TV coax is 75 ohm, other impedences exist. Coaxial cables can be buried. Coaxial cable is not affected by close metallic objects.
Maximum power is delivered with matched radio, transmission line & antenna impedance.
VSWR / SWR
Voltage Standing wave ratio (VSWR / SWR).
A measure of how well the load is matched to the TX. Ratio of maximum to minimum voltage on a transmission line or a feed line.
An SWR of 1:1 indicates a perfect match of the transmitter impedance to its antenna system. High SWRs (> 3:1) are usually not acceptable as TX can be damaged and power loss is very high.
Solid state TX start to cut back power output at 2:1 VSWR.
If the VSWR was once ok, a high VSWR indicates an antenna system or transmission line problem. Antenna tuner matches impedance between transmitter and antenna system.
Allows antenna to work on multiple frequencies.
VSWR Measurement
A standing wave ratio (SWR) meter is connected where you want to check the match.
Usually between transmitter and the feed line. At the antenna if you are only checking the antenna. Long feed lines lower the reading.
An RF watt meter is connected at the transmitter output to measure transmitter power output.
RF watt meters are usually 50 ohms. A directional watt meter measures forward (TX to Ant.) and reflected power (Ant. to TX.) True forward power = forward power reading less reflected power reading. This is another way to measure VSWR. VSWR = (1+(Reflected/Forward) / (1- (Reflected/Forward))
Modulation
Modulation is varying some characteristic of an emission for the purpose of conveying information.
A constant amplitude radio signal is an RF carrier. FM and AM transmitters without modulation produce a carrier wave. A carrier without side bands is usually a test signal. It also could be a bad modulator or a bad audio section.
An interrupted (on-off) carrier is a CW or pulse emission. The on-off is amplitude modulation. AM conveys information by varying the amplitude of the carrier, producing sidebands.
Modulation Visual
Spectrum
FM
More on Modulation
Amplitude modulation has a carrier and lower and upper side bands.
CW is AM on-off modulation AM modulation uses audio to change the RF amplitude. A detector demodulates and recovers the audio.
If one sideband and the carrier are eliminated it results in single side band suppressed carrier (SSB) modulation.
A product detector recovers CW and SSB modulation. Requires 2 inputs, signal and Beat Freq, Osc. (BFO). Over modulating of an AM or SSB transmitter causes clipping, harmonics and out-of-channel emission (splatter.) Reduce audio gain/talk softer.
Modulation End
For FM the carrier is moved to convey information.
FM carrier movement/deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulation, the rate of movement conveys the info. Freq.
A keyed audio tone used as the input to an FM, AM or SSB transmitter is modulated CW (MCW.) PSK-31, RTTY and Packet radio uses Frequency Shift Keying.
With FSK, the carrier moves between two frequencies.
Bandwidth
Modulation has side bands and requires bandwidth.
CW uses the narrowest bandwidth. Then RTTY/ PSK-31 SSB voice (2 to 3 kHz) AM (twice the bandwidth of SSB) FM communication voice (5 to 15 kHz) High data rate digital Fast scan TV (NTSC) (6 MHz)
Digital modes like packet use more bandwidth as their speed increases. The narrower the bandwidth, the higher the signal to noise ratio for a given TX power.
A signal is readable at a longer distance. CW / low data rate digital best for longest range like EME.
RADIO BASICS
A radio receiver converts radio frequencies into usable frequencies, audio for a phone receiver.
A detector is required (product-CW SSB, discriminator FM) Speaker, headphone/s or earphone/s are also required.
An Oscillator, RF source is required for a TX. A straight key, electronic keyer, CPU with keyboard etc. in used to transmit international Morse code. A radio phone modulator converts/imparts voice information into radio signals.
A microphone is required.
When a radio transmitter is combined with a radio receiver it is called a transceiver. Amplifiers.
Preamplifier to increase received or low level signals. Power amplifier to increase TX power.
Block Diagrams
Use the tuning or VFO knob or keypad to select frequency. Use a squelch control to eliminate noise when no RX signal. Use noise blanker to reduce ignition interference. Microphones may have PTT and up/down buttons for frequency or memory selection, connector has PS voltage. The shift control changes the RX/TX frequency offset. Change RX frequency via receiver incremental tuning RIT.
Will also change CW/SSB pitch as will changing the BFO freq.
The step function modifies the frequency tuning rate. The F key allows keys to perform an alternate function.
Battery Basics
There are many types of Batteries
Lead-acid - rechargeable 12v. auto battery Carbon Zinc - short life non rechargeable 1.5v AA, etc. Alkaline - long life non rechargeable 1.5v AA, AAA etc. Nickel-cadmium - rechargeable 1.2v AA, AAA etc. Nickel Metal Hydride, better - rechargeable 1.2v AA etc. Lithium-ion - rechargeable & non rechargeable 3.2v Longest life (most amp hours / cubic inch)
Batteries supply maximum energy (amp hours) with slow discharge (low current.)
Battery Considerations
Every battery can explode or heat to a dangerous temperature if charged or discharged at to fast a rate.
Follow the manufactures instructions.
Lead acid auto type batteries can be charged by an auto or truck in an emergency
They have have additional hazards.
When charging they give off hydrogen gas.
If not properly vented this can be an explosion hazard.
Miscellaneous
Solder Connections
Flux allows solder to flow on oxidized surfaces. Two types of flux
Rosin; OK for electrical circuits. Acid; current will corrode & fail connection.
Never use acid flux with electricity! A bright shinny joint is a good solder connection. A gray dull joint is a cold joint/bad solder connection
A power supply converts AC from a wall outlet to DC. It can make low-voltage, high-voltage or both.
Miscellaneous
Peak envelope power (RF output) is measured at the antenna terminals of the transmitter. Peak Envelope Power (PEP) is the average power during one RF cycle at the crest of modulation. Peak reading watt meter used for voice PEP. For mobile operation, a good filter cap will reduce alternator wine and power line RF pickup. A regulated power supply prevents voltage fluctuations.
Chirp, a shift in operating frequency verses time, (during a transmission) is eliminated by regulating the transmitter oscillator's power supply voltage output.
Problem Solving
If a HAM (new or otherwise) has a problem it will be solved quicker by offering to help then complaining. If a microphone is close to its speaker it may allow feedback (oscillate / squeal.) If someone reports that your signal through a repeater is garbled and weak, you may be off frequency. If someone reports that your SSB signal is grabbled and breaking up, you may have spurious emissions caused by RF getting into the TX via the microphone. A headset with microphone would help when operating in a noisy place. If you disconnect the TX power / batteries and / or microphone it can help to avoid unauthorized use.
Propagation
Radio signals propagate out to the radio horizon, just like light, if they are not refracted (bent) or reflected.
Radio horizon,a little further than earths curvature blockage.
Sky wave propagation involves radio signals that are reflected back to earth by the ionosphere.
This provides extended radio range, i.e. the signal "skips" back to earth, the level is variable and polarization is lost.
The ionosphere is the part of the upper atmosphere where ions and free electrons effect radio waves.
The sun's ultraviolet radiation ionizes the outer atmosphere, as does solar flux from a flare. The more sunspots the greater the ionization. Ionization is minimum just before sunrise.
Sunspots, solar flares radiation levels have an 11 year cycle.
More Propagation
The higher the solar radiation the higher the MUF and the more absorption of the low frequencies. The next layer, the E layer (60-70 miles) is the lowest region useful for long distance (DX) radio.
Sporadic E most likely in summer daylight on VHF bands. VHF = 30 to 300 MHz, UHF = 300 to 3000 MHz
The F2 layer (F1 140 miles - F2 200 miles) is most responsible for HF (3 to 30 MHz) long distance radio.
At night F1 and F2 combine.
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency usable between two points.
Signals that take off vertically and are higher in frequency than the critical frequency pass through the ionosphere. VHF/UHF signals usually pass through the ionosphere.
More Propagation
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency usable between two points.
Signals that take off vertically and are higher in frequency than the critical frequency pass through the ionosphere. VHF/UHF signals usually pass through the ionosphere.
Ground wave propagation involves radio signals that travel along the surface of the earth. VHF / UHF communication at close range is line of sight, by direct wave, and preferred when useable as no interference is caused to distance stations.
Propagation End
Large metallic objects and metal frame buildings can act as mirrors and reflect VHF/UHF and other signals.
Multipath may add to or cancel radio signals.
The Troposphere is below the ionosphere, and is where temperature changes with altitude.
VHF/UHF signals can bend around the earths curvature if there is a troposphere temperature inversion, often 300 miles or more.
Knife edge refraction can bend VHF/UHF signals over mountain ridges. Meteors have ionized tails and VHF/UHF signals can reflect / scatter for distant communications
Lunch
If you had a problem with any material, see us during lunch we can help. We will restart exactly one hour from now. If you have extra time check if there are any exam instructions and/or forms to fill out during lunch.
FCC License
The Amateur Radio license is both a station and operator authorization granted by the FCC. A station is the apparatus necessary for radio com. An amateur radio operator is one holding a FCC license to be a control operator
Must be: in the FCC database or an alien with reciprocal operating authorization. Good only where the FCC regulates or where there are reciprocal operating agreements .
Anyone, any age (except a representative of a foreign government) can become a HAM.
License
The FCC may revoke or supped your license if they do not have your current mailing address.
Requires you to receive U.S. mail from the FCC
The license is for 10 years, with a 2 year grace period for renewal, no grace period for operating. You can operate when and only when your license is in FCC data base.
1-888-CALLFCC http://wireless.fcc.gov/uls/
Only one primary station license per person. After upgrading from Technician to General before the upgrade is in the FCC database you can use your call with /AG.
Control Operator
The control operator is the licensed amateur that is responsible for a radio stations transmissions.
Required whenever the station is transmitting locally or by remote control. Not required when under approved automatic control.
The control point is where the station control functions and operator are located. The station licensee and the control operator is responsible for the stations transmissions. Must follow the FCC rules
If reciprocal operating must follow the foreign country rules. In Canada call/VE# & once during the communication, you must state your geographical location, like "30 km north of Toronto." European & all other CEPT reciprocal licenses Check for exact information before operating.
Control Operator
If you (the station licensee) give another licensee permission to be the control operator, the FCC holds both of you responsible for proper operation.
If your call is used you are assumed to be the control operator, so document who is the control operator.
An amateur licensee cannot be a control operator for a higher class of station when it is operating beyond the control operator's license, but any station can be operated to the license privileges of the control operator.
If higher privileges are being used that call must be used followed by your call.
More Information
The FCC can inspect your station and its records at any time. A volunteer examiner (VE) is a HAM accredited by one or more VECs who volunteer to administrate the license exam. Three examiners are required to give an exam. To administer the Technician exam they (VEs) must hold a General (or higher) class license. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) coordinates Frequency allocations to reduce interference and optimize spectrum use. The U.S. is in ITU region 2, Guam is in region 3.
The amateur radio license authorizes the equal use of specific operating frequencies, modes and transmitter power.
The higher the license class the higher the privileges. But no higher priority for any given frequency.
The Amateur radio frequencies / bands are often referred to by their approximate wavelength.
33 centimeters* - 902 to 928 MHz 23 centimeters* - 1240 to 1300 MHz Other higher frequencies*
Band edge operation is risky without very expensive test equipment.
* Hams may be a secondary user (cannot interfere with primary) or have geographic/power limits.
Technician Privileges
Technicians have all Amateur privileges and operating modes above 50 MHz + some below. Amateur radio transmitter power output is limited to the smallest amount that is required for communications, and not to exceed 1500 watts PEP. Beacons are for observation of propagation and are limited to 100W PEP.
They are one way and automatic control may be allowed.
Technician HF Privileges
3675 to 3725 kHz - 80 meter band - CW only 7025 to 7125 kHz - 40 meter band - CW only 21,100 to 21,200 kHz - 15 meter band - CW only 28,100 to 28,300 kHz - 10 meter band - CW, RTTY and Data only. 28,300 to 28,500 kHz - 10 meter band - CW and SSB including SSB MCW only. Power output on the above frequencies is limited for all HAMS to 200 watts PEP. HAMs have no distance limit when they transmit.
Under the vanity call sign program you can request any unissued call sign from groups allowed for your license class.
But not: _K, _L or _P unless you live there I.e. KL7 is Alaska.
You can change your call (non vanity / no choice) by requesting a systematic call on form 605. Any HAM can apply for a temporary 1x1. Club call signs are via a club call sign administrator.
A club must have at least 4 members.
Station Identification
You must call sign identify your station every 10 minutes (or less) and at the end of every contact. You do not have to ID for the first 10 minutes.
ID test transmissions use the same rules. Testing without ID is an illegal unidentified transmission.
If using a special event call for ID, your call 1/ hour. If you add some self-assigned indicator it must not conflict with an FCC rule indicator or an ITU prefix. ID can always be in CW or in the operating mode.
CW ID 20 wpm maximum, a reason to know CW.
Communications
Third party communications are coms. passed by amateur radio for someone other than the two operators in contact, or directly by a third party.
Foreign third party traffic is prohibited without an treaty or agreement, except when the third party is licensed.
If third party traffic is exchanged with a foreign station, the foreign station must also be identified by you at the end of contact. You can communicate with all amateur stations, on frequencies authorized by your license, unless prohibited by our or their government.
The FCC can OK communication with other radio services, for example US military com. test on Arm forces day.
Prohibitions
Broadcasting, transmitting information to the general public is prohibited.
No news reporting Beacons, remote control, Ham information bulletins and code practice are not broadcasting.
No business communications except when safety of life, immediate protection of property is threatened.
No call to your boss to request customer directions. Occasional sale or trade of HAM equipment OK.
No compensation of any type is permitted for HAM communication services, some part 97 exemptions.
Club employee sending bulletins and/or CW practice Teachers incidentals to instruction. 40 hours / week minimum may be paid.
More Prohibitions
Regular communication that can reasonably furnished by an other radio service is not permitted. Music transmission by phone is prohibited.
Except authorized re-broadcasting of space shuttle com.
The use of cipher to obfuscate is prohibited, ciphers meeting special requirements may be OK.
Radio control, and space station control ciphers OK.
Prohibitions End
An amateur may never transmit without identification.
No repeater testing without ID. No unidentified communications or signals.
No HAM space stations on 6 m or 1.25 m. You must NEVER willfully, maliciously or harmfully interfere with a radio communication or signal.
Listen before you start to transmit. If you accidentally interfere. ID and change frequency.
If amateur station shares frequency, or is a secondary band user it must not cause harmful interference.
Listen before you use a new Frequency.
Emergencies
Mayday for phone and SOS for CW are emergency signals only for immediate danger to life or property.
They are always assumed to be real. You are required to give them immediate priority. False use of them is a crime that can lead to: jail and / or a fine and / or loss of license. Health and welfare messages are relief traffic, but they are not emergency traffic.
If you receive an emergency distress signal from a station outside your operator privileges you can assist using any radio communications at your disposal. If you are in a situation without normal communications and immediate safety of human life or property is threatened you may use any radio communications at your disposal. (No non HAM frequencies when phone working.)
Emergency Preparedness
You must prepare before an emergency, as it is to late during one. Check twice a year that your emergency equipment is in working condition and where it belongs.
This applies to home and work even without HAM radio. Also know what is not needed, for example a 1500 w. amp.
Participate in emergency nets and drills. Learn how to run a net. Learn how to handle HAM radio traffic.
Communication Emergency
The FCC engineer in charge of an area is authorized to declare a temporary state of communications emergency when a disaster disrupts normal communications. Then only essential commination and relief use of amateur radio is allowed in accord with specific conditions and rules that are spelled out.
VOLUNTARY COMMUNICATIONS EMERGENCY - DECLARED DUE TO THE EXPECTED IMPACT OF HURRICANE ON THE TEXAS COAST, ALL AMATEURS ARE REQUESTED TO COOPERATE BY RECOGNIZING THE EXISTENCE OF A VOLUNTARY COMMUNICATIONS EMERGENCY AND THEREFORE RELINQUISHING THE USE OF FREQUENCIES 7285 kHz (EMERGENCIES) AND 7290 kHz (HEALTH AND WELFARE) DURING THE DAY AND 3873 kHz (EMERGENCIES) AND 3935 kHz (HEALTH AND WELFARE) DURING THE EVENING HOURS. THE FREQUENCIES ARE TO BE CLEARED WITHIN 3 kHz EITHER SIDE OF EACH FREQUENCY. THE COMMUNICATIONS EMERGENCY REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL RESCINDED. SIGNED: OLIVER LONG FCC HOUSTON RESIDENT AGENT
Operating
An emergency call receives priority. When used at a location other than stated on the license you are operating portable/mobile.
append call / portable or mobile.
Your license allows you to operate anywhere the FCC controls (U.S.), but!
You also must have the right to be there, property owner rules. Transmitting on a US controlled aircraft / ship requires: Requires the pilots / master of the ships specific permission. Ships / aircrafts radio equipment not to be used.
Operation in a foreign country OK if reciprocal treaty approved by both the US and the foreign country.
Must follow both foreign country and reciprocal treaty rules.
Contact Procedures
CQ and your call sign is a general call to invite any HAM station to make contact with your station.
In CW do not send it faster than you can receive.
Answer 1 x 1 (phonetically OK) voice: N9EW this is Whiskey 9 Papa Echo, answer 2 x 2 CW. On a repeater to establish contact;
General When in use Specific (them first) CQ W9PE or W9PE monitoring W9PE (during a break) N9EW this is W9PE (you last)
Procedural Signals
RST
R)eadability of the signal (1 to 5, unreadable to excellent) S)trength of the signal (1 to 9, just perceptible to strong, 9+ #dB very strong. An S-meter numeric scale indicates relative signal strength T)one of the signal (1 to 9, raw hum to pure tone)
73, best regards. QSL, a written confirmation of the contact, QSL card.
Also, yes I confirm or understand
QSL Card
Emissions
An RF signal is an electromagnetic emission. CW (continuous wave) uses international Morse code on-off keying of a transmitter. (150 Hz bandwidth) AM is amplitude modulation. ( 6 KHz bandwidth) SSB is single sideband suppressed carrier.
It is a form of AM. ( 2 to 3 KHz bandwidth) Upper side band above 40 meters (lower SB 40 m & down.) 2 meter SSB uses the upper side band (USB.)
FM is Frequency modulation. ( 5 to 15 kHz BW) Fast scan TV ( 6 MHz BW) Slow scan is FM or SSB. CW, SSB and low data rate digital, like PSK-31 are weak signal modes.
Lower bandwidths have better signal to noise ratios.
More on Emissions
AM, SSB & FM voice are Phone transmissions. MCW uses an on-off tone as input to a phone TX. Once FM signals are above threshold they have a good S/N (full quieting) and good audio fidelity.
Full Quieting when signal overcomes all receiver noise. Less effected by static & interference than AM modes (SSB) Set squelch to the point that just silences background noise. A stronger FM signal can capture (suppress) a weak one.
CTCSS or PL is a sub-audible tone used to open a tone squelched receiver. Newer squelch is DCS.
Carrier squelch is also used.
European repeaters use a tone burst for access. Simplex operation; TX & RX on the same freq.
Repeaters
Repeaters allow low power stations to extend their range.
They are usually duplex FM phone. Dual band HTs usually operate on 2 meters & 70 cm.
The TX/RX frequency difference is the offset and you must know it to use a repeater.
0.6 MHz (600 kHz) at 2 meters (148 MHz band.) 5 MHz at 70 centimeters (450 MHz MHz band.)
Open Repeaters allow any licensed amateur to use them, as contrasted to closed repeaters (only specific users.) Repeaters can be linked (RF or other) to increase coverage.
Auxiliary stations provide RF linking.
More on Repeaters
Pause between repeater TX to allow others to use.
Keep transmissions short, wait for a courtesy tone before TX. It is a beep when repeater TX stops and its receiver is open.
Repeaters have automatic time out circuits to limit the length of a signal transmission. Repeaters usually ID in MCW. Repeater owners pay all costs, users donate.
Band plans (beyond FCC) are voluntary guidelines for using different modes on various frequencies.
They reduce interference and conserve spectrum. For example;146.52 MHz is the national simplex FM calling frequency. Developed by HAMs for HAMs
Recognized frequency coordination body approved repeaters have priority over uncoordinated ones.
Frequency coordination body; HAMs selected by HAMs.
Otherwise stations including uncoordinated repeaters have equal rights to a frequency, and the equal responsibility to operate without EMI.
Repeaters are treated the same as any other mode. If you interfere you should ID and move to a different frequency.
Data Modes
Data is the term the FCC uses for telemetry, telecommand or computer communication emissions. Digital modes use FM at UHF/VHF, SSB at HF. RTTY Radio TeleTYpe uses narrow band frequency shift keying (FSK) and is direct printing.
Uses a modem, and a teleprinter or computer system. RTTY RX and TX must be at the same speed (baud.)
PSK-31 is a form of digital modulation that uses a computer sound card and frequency shift keying.
31 Hz bandwidth allows good signal to noise ratios. Low bandwidth requires a low data rate. Great for low power long distance communications. It uses BPSK (binary) modulation without error correction or QPSK (quadrature) modulation with error correction (-3dB.)
Digipeaters retransmit data that is so marked. A packet node network, interconnects stations to transfer data over long distances including satellites. Computer sound cards provide many digital modes.
Received signals are converted to digital data for CPU use. Data to be transmitted is converted to audio for TX mike input.
Other Modes
Digital transmissions should be avoided on band plan designated simplex frequencies. The higher the data rate, the wider the bandwidth.
19.6 Kilobauds max. on 6 and 2 meters.
Modern digital data TX provides high speed reliable communications with low bit error rate (BER)
Multipath nay increase the BER.
NTSC TV with cable channel 57 to 60 is a fast scan HAM band TV receiver. (Bandwidth = 6 MHz)
National Television System Committee, USA analog TV.
Location Information
Radio direction finding (RDF) is used to locate RF transmissions and or noise.
The fox hunting slide that follows has more RDF information.
Each station with new information transmits his new data to everyone in the net and every station captures that information for consistency to all participants.
Internet linking can be included.
Latitude and longitude define exact position. Grid squares define close position.
A picture is worth 1000 of words.
HAM Satellites
HAM satellites are repeaters, they use different input (uplink) and output (downlink) frequencies.
World wide communication is possible when both stations have a clear path to the satellite. By using the minimum needed transmitter power you prevent the satellites radio receiver from overloading.
To use a satellite your license class must allow operation on its uplink frequency. Satellites move, antenna pointing may be required.
LEOs Low Earth Orbit satellites move fast, pointing is required. The longest path to a satellite that is on the horizon.
It is also the one that changes least with time. Easiest for antenna pointing.
Satellite beacons contain information about them. The International Space Stations HAM operations are on VHF (2 meters) & UHF (70 cm.) frequencies.
Any Technician licensed HAM can contact it. International space station contact good for about 4 to 6 min.
The building and launch of most amateur radio satellites is coordinated by AMSAT.
the Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation.
Contesting
Work as many other HAM stations as possible during the contest time period following contest rules.
Winning operators have developed great operating skills (minimizing the time to convey the requited information), have picked the right tine for each band, have optimizes their station and may even have had a little luck.
Avoid casual chatter when ever you are involved in a public service net, it may interfere with important info.
If your direct line of sight to a repeater is blocked moving / rotating the antenna may open a reflective path and / or provide multipath enforcement. If operation while moving multipath can cause the signals to have AM, picket fence modulation.
Named picket fence as it can sound like a stick chicking the fence as someone walks along it, faster travel faster clicks.
Electrical Safety
1/10 amp (100 ma) of current may be fatal to the heart.
Disrupts body electrical functions Involuntary Contractions and Heating
All should know location & use of main power switch. Ground all your equipment for safety and minimum EMI.
The 110V green wire is used only for chassis ground.
Ground fault interrupters add additional safety. Fuse or circuit breaker required for all equipment.
Interrupts power if overload, prevent fire but only if correct size. Fuse both lines for mobile radios at battery/source.
Lightning Safety
Ground all radio and connected equipment.
Minimum 8 foot ground rod at each tower leg bounded to legs and each other with short wide connections. Follow local building codes.
Use lightning protectors on all antenna & rotor lines. Controlling lightning current flow prevents electric shock & fires.
Large currents result in large voltages with R>0 10,000 Amps / 0.01 ohms = 100 volts To avoid large voltage differences between equipments bonding must be very low resistance & Inductance. Wide conductors have low inductance.
Antenna Safety
Do not put towers and antennas or feed lines near or where they can contact High Voltage lines.
10 foot minimum safety margin if one falls.
There are tower height restrictions near airports. Keep antennas away from places where they can be contacted during transmission.
Even low power can cause an RF burn.
The metal roof of automobile is the safest antenna mobile mounting spot as it is hardest to reach and the roof provides good shielding to the occupants. Do not work on a tower / antenna if storm possible Make sure tower & guys are in good condition.
Follow manufactures instructions. Stainless steal hardware minimizes corrosion When working under the person on the tower wear a safety hat and safety glasses. Bring all tools needed to minimize trips up tower. Use a gin pole when lifting so not to lift above tower.
Temporary pole above tower with pulley and cable on top.
When using a Bow and Arrow or a Sling Shot practice People, Property, Power line (PPP) safety.
Radiation Identification
RF Safety
Amateur Radio Transmitters do not emit any ionizing radiation. Amateur Radio Transmitters do emit RF heating radiation, like microwave ovens.
Heating is dependent upon the material, the RF frequency and the RF power level.
The FCC requires all radio transmitters to meet RF radiation exposure limits to assure a safe operating environment for amateurs, their family and neighbors. The FCC radiation Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) limits are defined in the FCC rules part 1 and in the FCC office of Engineering and Technology (OTE) bulletin 65.
RF Safety Understanding.
All amateurs are responsible for not exceeding the MPE limits. You also must indicate that you have read and understand these rules on the amateur license application form at the time of application. The limits are in milliwatts per square centimeter as a function of frequency. The following FCC graph will aid in understanding the limits. We will also provide an easy way to be safe and to comply with the FCC requirements.
More RF Safety
The MPE is not uniform across the RF spectrum because the body absorbs some frequencies better than others.
30 to 300 MHz are the frequencies that are easiest for the body to absorb and convert to heat. MPE levels are also different for controlled (your property) and uncontrolled environments (where anybody can be).
RF Safety Compliance
If you your antenna (including repeater antennas) is collocated with other antennas the total radiation from all transmitters must be considered. You do not have to make measurements or perform complex calculations or use computer models to verify that you meet the requirements.
But you can use them as a way to comply.
Simple tables are available in the FCC office of Engineering and Technology (OTE) bulletin 65, and from other sources including the ARRL. The FCC has provided an even easier way to verify that you meet the requirement, as no evaluation is required if you have PEP into the antenna below 50 watts.
Easy Compliance
SSB operation at 100 W. or less would also qualify as a duty factor of 50 % is given, even with heavy speech compression. Conversational CW at less than 125 watts (0.4 duty factor * 125 W. = 50 W.) would also qualify. In addition if you only use the transmitter for 3 minutes out of 6 minutes you can double the above qualifying power levels for a controlled environment (15 out of 30 minuets for an uncontrolled environ.) Last but not least, note that the power levels given are at the antenna, hence cable losses apply.
In most cases these tables will eliminate the need for calculations or measurements.
The tables take into account power, antenna gain (pattern) distance and frequency. A sample table follows.
Table Exerts
Good Luck
I hope to talk to you on a HAM band.
W9PE WWW.W9PE.US