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What is matter? Can you create it? Can you destroy it?
Classification of Matter
Matter anything that has mass and takes up space. Anything! Chemistry the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. All matter can exist in three (3) states: o Solid o Liquid o Gas
no PURE SUBSTANCE
no
yes
no
Heterogeneous Mixture
Compound
Element
Suspensions
The Mole
Chemical reactions involve atoms and molecules. The ratios with which elements combine depend on the number of atoms not on their mass. The masses of atoms or molecules depend on the substance. Individual atoms and molecules are extremely small. Hence a larger unit is appropriate for measuring quantities of matter. A mole is equal to exactly the number of atoms in exactly 12.0000 grams of carbon
The Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance Avogadro's number is the number of particles (molecules) in one mole for any substance
Moles to Volume
Simple Conversions:
- Mole / Mass Conversions Use the Molar Mass of a substance to convert from Moles to Mass and Mass to Moles
Mass to Moles
80. g CuSO4
Moles to Mass
80.g CuSO4
Simple Conversions:
- Mole / Molecule Conversions Use Avogadros Number : 6.022 x 1023 molecules (mc) in one mole of the substance
(mc) to Moles
= 2 mol CuSO4
Simple Conversions:
- Mole / Volume Conversions At STP (standard temperature and pressure) one mole of any gas takes up 22.4 L of space
Moles to Volume
2 mol O2
22.4 L O2 1 mol O2
44.8 L O2
Volume to Moles
44.8 L O2
1 mol O2 22.4 L O2
2 mol O2
Practice
1(a): MM of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
Practice
3(a): convert 3.56 g ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) to moles
Practice
4(a) convert 0.135 mmoles of potassium phosphate (K3PO4) to grams
Mole Ratio
If you are trying to convert from one material to another in a chemical equation, you must use the mole ratio which can be found in the 2balanced3 CuCl2equation + 2 Al + chemical 3 Cu
AlCl3
The Mole Ratio for Aluminum to Copper is 2:3 meaning 2 moles of Al will produce 3 moles of Cu, so long as CuCl2 is in excess.
Stoich Problem #1
If 80 grams of copper (II) sulfate reacts with an excess of iron, how many grams of copper will be produced? (31.8 g)
Stoich Problem #2
The base calcium hydroxide neutralizes 60 g nitric acid, how many g of salt will be produced? (78.1 g)
Stoich Problem #3
2.0 x 1025 atoms of copper is reacted with an excess of a silver (I) nitrate solution, how many grams of silver are produced? (7.17 x 103 g)
Stoich Problem #4
An excess of methane gas combusts in the presence of 1.00 kL of oxygen, what volume of carbon dioxide will be produced at STP? (500L)
Limiting Reagents
With two reactants (A and B) in a chemical equation, three situations can occur:
o Stoichiometrically equal amounts of A and B (ratio is met) o More A than B (A is in excess, B is limiting) o More B than A (B is in excess, A is limiting)
The limiting reagent (reactant) determines how far the reaction will proceed.
The one that produces more is the excess The one that produces less is the limiting
Yield in Reactions
The theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of product that would be formed if the reaction went to completion. This can be calculated based on the limiting reactant.
The amount of product obtained in a chemical reaction, also known as the Actual yield
Percent Yield
The actual yield of a product as a percentage of the theoretical yield
Molarity
Many times it is more convenient to use solutions of chemicals when working in the lab A solution is made of a solute (the part that is dissolved) and a solvent (the part that does the dissolving) The amount of solute dissolved per unit of volume is called the concentration Concentration can be measured in g dm3 , mol dm-3 or mol L-1 (1L = 1dm-3)
Molarity
The unit M or molarity is read as moles per liter or moles per cubic decimeter Concentration is often represented using square brackets. For example [NaOH] = 3.0M means a solution of NaOH with a concentration of 3.0mol dm-3
Molarity practice
What is the [HCl] if 15g of HCl is dissolved in water to a final volume of 2.5L?
H Li Be
He Ne Ar
Na Mg K Rb Cs Fr Ca Sr Ba Ra
As Se Br Kr Sb Te Bi I Xe
Zr Nb Mo Hf Ta W
Pd Ag Cd Pt Au Hg Ds
Po At Rn
Rf Db Sg
Ce
Pr Nd Pm Sm U Np
Eu
Gd
Tb Dy Ho Cf
Er
Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa
Pu Am Cm Bk
Es Fm Md No Lr
GROUPS
H Li Be
Similarities: The number of electrons in the outer shell. Common reactivity, bonding, chemical and physical properties.
He B Al C Si Ge Sn Pb N P O S F Cl Ne Ar
Na Mg K Rb Cs Fr Ca Sr Ba Ra Se Y La Ac Ti V Cr Mn Tc Re Bh Fe Ru Os Hs Co Rh Ir Mt Ni
Cu Zn Ga In Tl
As Se Br Kr Sb Te Bi I Xe
Zr Nb Mo Hf Ta W
Pd Ag Cd Pt Au Hg Ds
Po At Rn
Rf Db Sg
Ce
Pr Nd Pm Sm U Np
Eu
Gd
Tb Dy Ho Cf
Er
Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa
Pu Am Cm Bk
Es Fm Md No Lr
H Li Be
Na Mg K Rb Cs Fr Ca Sr Ba Ra
As Se Br Kr Sb Te Bi I Xe
Zr Nb Mo Hf Ta W
Pd Ag Cd Pt Au Hg Ds
Po At Rn
Rf Db Sg
Metals
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm U Np Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Cf Er Th Pa Pu Am Cm Bk
Metaloids
Tm Yb Lu
Es Fm Md No Lr
H Li Na K Rb Cs Fr Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra
Alkali Metals
Metaloids
Non-metals Halogens
B Al Ga In Tl C Si Ge Sn Pb N P As Sb Bi O S Se Te Po F Cl Br I At He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn
Lanthanides
Ce Th Pr Pa Nd U Pm Np Sm Pu Eu Am Gd Cm Tb Bk Dy Cf
Noble Gases
Ho Es Er Fm Tm Md Yb No Lu Lr
Actinides
1+
NM/NM = Covalent/Molecular
o Because they must share electrons o Various compounds (CO , CO2 , CO3 )
Ionic compounds
What ionic compound forms between Mg2+ and O2-? What ionic compound forms between Pb4+ and O2-? Ionic compounds are always in the simplest whole number ratio, known as the empirical formula!
Covalent Compounds
Is carbon dioxide an empirical formula?
o Simplest ratio = CO2
Formulas
Formulas for ionic compounds are ALWAYS empirical (lowest whole number ratio). Examples: NaCl MgCl2
(continued)
Al2(SO4)3
K2CO3
Formulas (continued)
Formulas for molecular compounds MIGHT be empirical (lowest whole number ratio). Molecular: Empirical: H2O H2O C6H12O6 CH2O C12H22O11 C12H22O11
Therefore if we have a compound with 50% H and 50% O by mass it will NOT have a formula of HO, will it?
Example 1
Analysis of a certain compound showed that 32.356 grams of compound contained 0.883 grams of hydrogen, 10.497 grams of Carbon, and 27.968 grams of Oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound. First divide the amount by the atomic mass to get the number of moles of each kind of atom in the formula Hydrogen H = 0.883 g = 0.874 mol 1.01 g mol-1 Carbon C = 10.497 g 12.01 g mol-1 27.968 g 16.00 g mol-1 = 0.874 mol
Oxygen
O =
= 1.748 mol
Analysis of the ratio s shows that the first two are identical and that the third is twice the other two. Therefore the ratio of H to C to O is 1 to 1 to 2. The empirical formula is HCO2
Molecular Formula
To calculate the molecular formula from the empirical formula it is necessary to know the molecular (molar) mass. Add up the atomic masses in the empirical formula to get the factor Divide this number into the molecular formula mass. If the number does not divide evenly you probably have a mistake in the empirical formula or its formula mass Multiply each subscript in the empirical formula by the factor to get the molecular formula
Example: Suppose the molecular mass of the compound in the previous example, HCO2 is 90.0. Calculate the molecular formula. The empirical formula mass of is 1H 1.0 x 1 = 1.0 1 C 12.0 x 1 = 12.0 2 O 16.0 x 2 = 32.0 Total 45.0 Note that 45 is exactly half of the molecular mass of 90. So the formula mass of HCO2 is exactly half of the molecular mass. Hence the molecular formula is double that of the empirical formula or H2C2O4
Percentage Composition
The percent by mass of each element in a compound is equal to the percentage that its atomic mass is of the formula mass.
Example
Calculate the percentage by mass of each element in potassium carbonate, K2CO3 First calculate the formula mass for K2CO3
2 Potassium atoms K 1 carbon atom C 3 Oxygen atoms O 2 x 39.10 = 78.20 1 x 12.01 = 12.01 3 x 16.00 = 48.00 Total = 138.21
To find the percent of each element divide the part of the formula mass that pertains to that element with the total formula mass
Percent of Potassium K = 78.20 X 100 138.21 Percent of Carbon Percent of Oxygen =56.58 % C = 12.01 X 100 138.21 O = 48.00 X 100 138.21 = 8.69 % = 34.73 %
Properties of Gases
Variable volume and shape Expand to occupy volume available Volume, Pressure, Temperature, and the number of moles present are interrelated Can be easily compressed Exert pressure on whatever surrounds them Easily diffuse into one another
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48
Barometer
The mercury barometer was the basis for defining pressure, but it is difficult to use or to transport Furthermore Mercury is very toxic and seldom used anymore Most barometers are now aneroid barometers or electronic pressure sensors,
49 Scheffler
The above represent some of the more common units for measuring pressure. The standard SI unit is the Pascal or kilopascal. (kPa) The US Weather Bureaus commonly report atmospheric pressures in inches of mercury. Pounds per square inch or PSI is widely used in the United States. Most other countries use only the metric system.
50 Scheffler
Boyles Law
According to Boyles Law the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional at constant pressure. PV = constant. P1V1 = P2V2
52 Scheffler
Sample Problem 1:
If the pressure of helium gas in a balloon has a volume of 4.00 dm3 at 210 kPa, what will the pressure be at 2.50 dm3? P1 V1 = P2 V2
(210 kPa) (4.00 dm3) = P2(2.50 dm3) P2 = (210 kPa) (4.00 dm3) (2.50 dm3)
= 340 kPa
Scheffler
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Boyles Law
A graph of pressure and volume gives an inverse function A graph of pressure and the reciprocal of volume gives a straight line
Scheffler
54
According to Charles Law the volume of a gas is proportional to the Kelvin temperature as long as the pressure is constant V = kT
V1
=
Charles Law
V2 T2
T1
Note: The temperature for gas laws must always be expressed in Kelvin where Kelvin = o C +273.15 (or 273 to 3 significant digits)
55 Scheffler
Charles Law
A graph of temperature and volume yields a straight line. Where this line crosses the x axis (x intercept) is 56 defined as absolute zero
Scheffler
Sample Problem 2
A gas sample at 40 oC occupies a volume of 2.32 dm3. If the temperature is increased to 75 oC, what will be the final volume?
V1 = V2 T1 T2 Convert temperatures to Kelvin. 40oC = 313K 75oC = 348K 2.32 dm3 = V2 313 K 348K
2.58 dm3
V2 =
Scheffler
57
Gay-Lussacs Law
Gay-Lussacs Law defines the relationship between pressure and temperature of a gas. The pressure and temperature of a gas are directly proportional
P1 T1
Scheffler
P2 T2
58
Sample Problem 3:
The pressure of a gas in a tank is 3.20 atm at 22 oC. If the temperature rises to 60oC, what will be the pressure in the tank? P1 = P2 T1 T2 Convert temperatures to Kelvin. 22oC = 295K 60oC = 333K 3.20 atm = P2 295 K 333K
3.6 atm
Scheffler
P2 =
59
T2
Scheffler
60
Sample Problem 4:
A gas at 110 kPa and 30 oC fills a container at 2.0 dm3. If the temperature rises to 80oC and the pressure increases to 440 kPa, what is the new volume? Convert temperatures to Kelvin. 30oC = 303K
P1V1 = P2V2 T1 =
80oC = 353K
V2
T2 V1 P1T2 P2 T1
V2
= 0.58 dm3
Scheffler
61
Advogadros Law
Equal volumes of a gas under the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles. If the temperature and pressure are constant the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles of gas present V = constant * n where n is the number of moles of gas V/n = constant V1/n1 = constant = V2 /n2 V1/n1 = V2 /n2
62 Scheffler
Scheffler
63
PV = nRT
Where P = pressure V = volume T = Kelvin Temperature n = number of moles The numerical value of R depends on the pressure unit (and perhaps the energy unit) Some common values of R include: R = 62.36 dm3 torr mol-1 K-1 = 0.0821 dm3 atm mol-1 K-1 = 8.314 dm3kPa mol-1 K-1
Scheffler 64
Sample Problem 5
Example: What volume will 25.0 g O2 occupy
Data
P = 0.880 atm; T = (20 + 273)K = 293K R = 0.08205 dm-3 atm mol-1 K-1
PV = nRT so V = nRT/P V = (0.781 mol)(0.08205 dm-3 atm mol-1 K-1)(293K) 0.880 atm V = 21.3 dm3
Scheffler 65
Formula
Molar Mass (M ) of a Gaseous Substance dRT M= P d is the density of the gas in g/L
66 Scheffler
Sample Problem 6
A 2.10 dm3 vessel contains 4.65 g of a gas at 1.00 atmospheres and 27.0oC. What is the molar mass of the gas?
dRT M= P M=
2.21
g dm3
300.15 K
1 atm
M = 54.6 g/mol
67 Scheffler
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 +
where P1 P2 P3 P4 = = = =
. . . .
Scheffler
PT = total pressure partial pressure of gas 1 partial pressure of gas 2 partial pressure of gas 3 partial pressure of gas 4
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Sample Problem 7
Henrietta Minkelspurg generates Hydrogen gas and collected it over water. If the volume of the gas is 250 cm3 and the barometric pressure is 765.0 torr at 25oC, what is the pressure of the dry hydrogen gas at STP?
(PH2O = 23.8 torr at 25oC)
70 Scheffler
Sample Problem 8
Henrietta Minkelspurg generated Hydrogen gas and collects it over water. If the volume of the gas is 250 cm3 and the barometric pressure is 765 torr at 25oC, what is the volume of the dry hydrogen gas at STP? From the previous calculation the adjusted pressure is 742.2 torr P1= PH2 = 742.2 torr; P2= Std Pressure = 760 torr T1= 298K; T2= 273K; V1= 250 cm3; V2= ? (V1P1/T1) = (V2P2/T2) therefore V2=(V1P1T2)/(T1P2) V2 = (250 cm3)(742.2 torr)(273K) (298K)(760.torr)
Scheffler
V2 = 223.7 cm3
71
Matter consists of particles (atoms or molecules) that are in continuous, random, rapid motion The Volume occupied by the particles has a negligibly small effect on their behavior Collisions between particles are elastic Attractive forces between particles have a negligible effect on their behavior Gases have no fixed volume or shape, but take the volume and shape of the container The average kinetic energy of the particles 72
Scheffler
In an Ideal Gas -- The particles (atoms or molecules) in continuous, random, rapid motion. The particles collide with no loss of momentum The volume occupied by the particles is essentially zero when compared to the volume of the container The particles are neither attracted to each other nor repelled The average kinetic energy of the particles is proportional to their Kelvin temperature At normal temperatures and pressures gases closely approximate idea behavior
74 Scheffler
Real Gases
For ideal gases the product of pressure and volume is constant. Real gases deviate somewhat as shown by the graph pressure vs. the ratio of observed volume to ideal volume below.
These deviations occur because Real gases do not actually have zero volume Scheffler
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