SONAR

What is SONAR?
Stands for SOUND NAVIGATION AND
RANGING Uses acoustical waves to sense the location of objects in the ocean Uses transmitted and reflected underwater sound waves to detect and locate submerged objects or measure distances underwater

Uses
Submarine and mine detection Depth detection Commercial fishing Diving safety Communication at sea

 The simplest sonar devices send out a sound

pulse from a transducer and then precisely measure the time it takes for the sound pulses to be reflected back to the transducer The distance to an object can be calculated using this time difference and the speed of sound in the water (approximately 1,500 meters per second)

History
1490 Leonardo Da Vinci; a tube is
inserted into the water was said to be used to detect vessels by placing an ear to the tube 19th century underwater bell was used as an ancillary to lighthouses to provide warning hazards

 1913 Alexander Behm; echo sounder 1914 Reginald Fessenden; experimental

system which could detect an iceberg at two miles range, though it was unable to say which direction the berg was in

 WWI underwater hydrophones

- active sound devices for detecting submarines - Robert Boyle; active sonar project WWII new military sonar

Passive SONAR
Operator listens to sounds emitted by the
object one is trying to locate. Passive sonars listen without transmitting. It is usually employed in military settings, where it is crucial to detect enemy vessels without divulging one's location.

 Identifying sound sources

Noise limitations Performance prediction

Equation
SL - TL = NL - DI + DT
where SL is the source level, TL is the transmission loss, NL is the noise level, DI is the directivity index of the array and DT is the detection threshold.

Frequency
192 kHz Shallower depths Narrow cone angle Better definition and target separation Less noise susceptibility 50 kHz Deeper depths Wide cone angle Less definition and target separation More noise susceptibility

Frequencies used in navigational SONAR

"Modern ultrasonic generators can produce frequencies up to more than several gigahertz (1 GHz = 1 billion Hz)." 1 GHz "Branch of physics dealing with high-frequency sound waves, usually in the range above 20,000 hertz (Hz)." 20 kHz

"Frequencies for sport fishing sonar are 50 kHz and 200 kHz, although 120 kHz, 455 kHz, and other frequencies are also used."

50, 120, 200, 455 kHz

"Sonar operates in the 10 to 50 kilocycle acoustical frequency range."

10 - 50 kHz

"The DSOG now operates 120 kHz and 200 kHz split-beam sonar systems designed for deeply-towed, near-bottom seafloor imaging and swath phase-bathymetric mapping."

120, 200 kHz

How SONAR works

Sends a burst of high frequency sound
waves

 Listens for an echo

Theory - equation
d = s x (t/2)
Time it takes half of the time to go down and half to return

Speed approximately 1500 m/s through seawater Distance

Theory sound propagation in water

This may be expressed by the sound pressure,
sound particle velocity, and/or the sound intensity as a function of position, time, and frequency. Sound pressure amplitude, p, in water is expressed in Pascals while the logarithmic unit of a sound pressure level, Lp, is expressed in decibels with respect to the reference sound pressure amplitude, i.e., 1 Pa = po, where Lp = 20log(p/po).

Theory propagation loss

Propagation loss is the difference between
the sound pressure level at the reference position (i.e. 1m distance in the direction of maximum response) and the sound pressure level at a point in the sound field.

 Nw = Nspr + Natt
Where: Nw = propagation loss Nspr=10nlog(r/ro) = spreading loss; n=2 (theoretical spherical spreading) r = radial distance from sound source ro = reference radial distance Natt=10-3r=attenuation coefficient

 For frequencies below about 20 kHz at T

= 4C (fT, relaxation freq, = 71 kHz), depth = 0m and S = 35 ppt, attenuation coefficient is approximated to: = [(0.11f2)/(1+f2)] + 0.01f2 dB/km and for above 200 kHz, = 50 + 0.0004f2 dB/km

THEORY propagation paths

A. Direct ray with a surface reflection ray with constant speed

surface Reflected ray

Sound source receiver

Direct ray

B. Near surface ray confined by surface-layer sound channel with leakage rays due to diffraction and reflected waves from a rough surface

C. Single bottom reflection

D. Diverging and Converging rays

E. Two bottom reflections with intermediate surface reflection

F. Diverging rays trapped in a deep sound channel

Speed of sound in water

Seawater may be represented by the
following conditions: Temperature, T: -3 to +30C Depth, d: 0 to 10,000 m Salinity, S: 33 to 37 parts per thousand

 Speed of Sound in Water, cw, is given by:

cw = 1449.3 + 4.572T 0.0445T2 + 0.0165d +1.398(S 35) m/s For engineering calculations, the nominal value of cw = 1500m/s at 13C is convenient.

Side scan sonar

One of the most accurate systems for
imaging large areas of the ocean floor is called side scan sonar. This is a towed system that normally functions when it is moving in a straight line. Side scan sonar transmits a specially shaped acoustic beam 90 degrees from the support craft's path, and out to each side.

Horizontal propagation

Vertical propagation

Application
Overall survey to locate pipeline or cable
routes, seamounts, obstruction and other features Target search operations where small but discrete objects are lost and require pinpointing; and Mapping where large sections of seabed need to be imaged accurately. Specifically, shipwreck location, mine hunting, downed aircraft search and lost cargo search operations all require the use of side scan.

Multibeam sonar
records and measures the time it takes for
the signal to travel from the transmitter to the seafloor and back to the receiver The range of the system coverage is a function of water depth covering from approximately two to seven times the water depth

 excellent for mapping large areas of the

seafloor rapidly with approximately 100% bottom coverage Multibeam sonar also provide color images with blue and green portraying deeper areas and yellow and red portraying shallower areas.

Multibeam bathymetry
Multibeam bathymetry is based on the fact that more beams

are better than one multibeam bathymetry systems have arrays of 12 kHz transducers, sometimes up to 120 of them, arranged in a precise geometric pattern on ships hulls. The swath of sound they send out covers a distance on either side of the ship that is equal to about two times the water depth. The sound bounces off the seafloor at different angles and is received by the ship at slightly different times. All the signals are then processed by computers on board the ship, converted into water depths, and automatically plotted as a bathymetric map with an accuracy of about 10 meters.

Mapping the ocean floor with echo sounding

Echo sounding is the key method
scientists use to map the seafloor today. The technique, first used by German scientists in the early 20th century, uses sound waves bounced off the ocean bottom.

Transducer
Sonar units antenna Converts electric energy from the transmitter to

high frequency sound When the returning echo strikes the transducer, it converts the sound back into electrical energy which is sent to the sonar units receiver Echo sounding electroacoustic transducers

Tranducers for underwater sound

Applications functions as sound wave
generators or sound wave and property detectors (i.e. amplitude and phase properties). The conversion of energy is accomplished by piezoelectricity and electrostriction, piezomagnetism and magnetostriction, electrodynamics and magnetodynamics; and chemical transformations and hydrodynamics.

Sound generators (source or projector)

A projecting transducer converts input (usually
electrical) energy to acoustic energy. There are two main projector types: 1. continuous-wave or modulated input projector - military and commercial applications 2. impulse sources - oceanographic and geophysical applications

 Continuous-wave projector transducers utilize

piezoelectric, electrostrictive, or magnetostrictive, or magnetostrictive energyconversion materials. Some of the materials used are: Piezoelectric crystals possess linear property relationship between strain and electric field. Their application has low dielectric constant, low electromechanical coupling coefficient, narrow bandwidth and low power-handling capability. They can yield very high conversion efficiencies. Efficiency above 90% can be achieved.

 Ferroelectric crystals either single-crystal or

polycrystalline ceramic form; often electrostrictive. They have high dielectric constants, broad bandwidth, and high powerhandling capability. Operating frequencies from less than 1 Hz to more than 10 MHz can be achieved. Efficiency greater than 70% can be achieved. Magnetostrictive transducers depend upon the interchange of energy between magnetic and mechanical forms. They can achieve acoustic powers up to several kilowatts with efficiencies greater than 50%. Operating frequency is below 100 kHz. Commonly used materials are nickel alloys and ferrites.

Detectors
The receiver in a sonar system employs a
hydrophone or hydrophone array coupled to an amplifier. Hydrophone elements most often employ piezoelectric energy-conversion materials, although magnetostrictive and electrodynamic mechanisms are sometimes used. Typical hydrophone sensitivities are on the order of -180 to -200 dB.

Sonar transducers
Piezocomposite
transducers are an excellent choice for sonar applications. Transducers made from piezocomposite are highly efficient and inherently broadband.

Examples include:
Broadband Sonar Projectors Hydrophones Ocean Survey Sonar Arrays Mine Hunting Sonar Arrays Fish-finding Sonar Transducers Towed Array Sonar Undersea Communications Modems Large Area Conformal Arrays Constant Beamwidth Transducers Phased Arrays Swath Bathymetry Arrays AUV/UUV Sonar Transducers

Retractable sonar pod

The pod was constructed of
either stainless steel or some type of synthetic material such as fiberglass and protected the transducer from passing water. The entire pod is full of salt water so the transducer can transmit & receive its pulse. When "pinging", the transducer is turned incrementally with the control rod. In early models the transducer was turned manually.

Searchlight
This shows the detection areas and
capabilities of the three different asdic models. The "searchlight" was the first development, followed by the "Q" attachment, and finally the Type 147 or "Sword". The "Q" allowed the hunter to continue tracking deep-diving U-boats as they got closer, something the early searchlight could not do. The Type 147 Sword added lateral tracking of deepdivers, which permitted last-second targeting adjustments.

 Sonar, or "Asdic" as our British

allies called it, was one of the greatest innovations of WW2. A British invention, sonar was theorized as early as WW 1 but was not technologically possible until November 1941, when it was first installed on British Destroyers. These early sonars had a "searchlight" beam, coneshaped much like a flashlight's beam. Targets that fell within the search beam reflected the "ping" of the transducer back to the ship. Based on the amount of time needed to return the ping, the sonar could calculate the target's range.

Amplifier, Audio Frequency

This component is located in the sound room in the bottom of the ship near the transducer pod.

Receiver- scanner
This component is located in the sound
room in the bottom of the ship near the transducer pod.

Converter
This component is located in the sound
room in the bottom of the ship near the transducer pod.

 The two-axis sonar

stabilization module at the right attaches to the left side of the computer in the top photo. The top window is marked "Dir.(ection) Train". The Second window from the top is marked "Sonar Train." The third window from the top is empty. The bottom window is marked "Sonar Depression.

These components are located in the sound room in the bottom of the ship near the transducer pod.

Receiver - transmitter
This component is located in the
sound room in the bottom of the ship near the transducer pod. The UQC-1 was the underwater telephone. It used a simple superheterodyne ReceiverTransmitter operating at 8 and 12 kHz. Mikes and audio amplifiers were located in sonar and on the bridge.

Sonar detecting ranging set

 The chemical attack

recorder registered the echoes sent to it by the sonar equipment. The echoes were registered on thermal sensitive paper, and the recorder then acted as a mechanical computation device, calculating the target depth changes and determining when depth charges should be dropped. Frequently, the attack recorder operator would issue the command to initiate a depth charge attack with the sound powered phone connection to the depth charge racks and K-gun operators.

Range and train indicator

Azimuth and range indicator

 The Attack Director belongs in Sonar

control. It is the fire control computer for the hedgehogs and the depth charges. It has nothing whatsoever to do with surface or anti-air gunnery. The analog computer solved the fire control problem and could fire the weapons automatically if that mode of operation were chosen by the ASW officer. It was hard-wired into the sonar set and could also take over the sonar so as to keep the sonar beam on the sub during the attack. The sonar operator would then watch the PPI carefully to ensure that sub maneuvers didn't throw off the attack director. He could aid the computer back on the sub with the 'aided track' mode.

 The sonar transducer

control panel is actually the top portion of the AN/SQS-4 sonar control console. You can see the transmitter/pulse and fire control controls on the faceplate. This was where the sonar operator sat. It was colloquially called the sonar 'stack'.

Total system performance

There are four facets to a good sonar
unit:
high power transmitter efficient transducer sensitive receiver high resolution/contrast display