EBVF4103 (Chapter 4) Fluid Mechanics For Civil Engineering

Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A.
Karim (OUM)
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Copyright ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
1
FLUID MECHANICS FOR
CIVIL ENGINEERING
TUTORIAL 2
UNIT 2: Fluid Dynamics and Behaviour of
Real Fluid
Chapter 4: Application of Bernoulli and
Momentum Equations
Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim
EBVF4103 Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering
Jan 2005
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM)
Technical Studies
2
SEQUENCE OF CHAPTER 4

Introduction
Objectives
4.1 Application of Bernoulli Equation
4.1.1 Pitot Tube
4.1.2 Pitot Static Tube
4.1.3 Venturi Meter
4.1.4 Sharp Edge Circular Orifice
4.1.5 Nozzles
4.1.6 Flow over Notches and Weirs
Summary

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3
Introduction
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many
situations not just the pipe flow we have been considering up
to now.
In the following sections we will see some examples of its
application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as
well as in open channels.
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4
Objectives
Acknowledge practical uses of the Bernoulli and momentum
equation in the analysis of flow
Understand how the momentum equation and principle of
conservation of momentum is used to predict forces induced
by flowing fluids
Apply Bernoulli and Momentum Equations to solve fluid
mechanics problems
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5
4.1 Application of Bernoulli Equation
X
0
Figure 4.1:
Streamlines passing a
non-rotating obstacle
4.1.1 Pitot tube
A point in a fluid stream where the velocity
is reduced to zero is known as a stagnation
point.
Any non-rotating obstacle placed in the
stream produces a stagnation point next to
its upstream surface.
The velocity at X is zero: X is a stagnation
point.
By Bernoulli's equation the quantity p + V2 + gz is constant along a
streamline for the steady frictionless flow of a fluid of constant density.
If the velocity V at a particular point is brought to zero the pressure there is
increased from p to p + V
2
.
For a constant-density fluid the quantity p + V
2
is therefore known as the
stagnation pressure of that streamline while V
2
that part of the stagnation
pressure due to the motion is termed the dynamic pressure.
A manometer connected to the point X would record the stagnation pressure, and
if the static pressure p were also known V
2
could be obtained by subtraction,
and hence V calculated.
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6
Figure 4.2:
Simple Pitot Tube
A right-angled glass tube, large enough for capillary effects to be
negligible, has one end (A) facing the flow. When equilibrium is
attained the fluid at A is stationary and the pressure in the tube
exceeds that of the surrounding stream by V
2
. The liquid is forced
up the vertical part of the tube to a height :
h = Ap/g = V
2
/g = V
2
/2g
above the surrounding free surface. Measurement of h therefore
enables V to be calculated.
(4.3)
gh V 2 =
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7
Measurement of the static
pressure may be made at the
boundary of the flow, as
illustrated in (a), provided that
the axis of the piezometer is
perpendicular to the boundary
and the connection is smooth
and that the streamlines
adjacent to it are not curved
A tube projecting into the flow
(Tube c) does not give a
satisfactory reading because the
fluid is accelerating round the
end of the tube.
Figure 4.3:
Piezometers
connected to a pipe
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8
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the
pipe can be used in an arrangement shown below to measure
velocity of flow.
From the expressions above,
2
1 1 2
2
1
V p p + =
( )
1 2
2
1 1 2
2
2
1
h h g V
V gh gh
=
+ =
Figure 4.3 : A Piezometer and a Pitot tube
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9
4.1.2 Pitot static tube
The tubes recording static pressure
and stagnation pressure are
frequently combined into one
instrument known as a Pitot-static
tube
The static tube surrounds the total
head tube and two or more small
holes are drilled radially through the
outer wall into the annular space.
The position of these static holes is
important. This instrument, when
connected to a suitable manometer,
may be used to measure point
velocities in pipes, channels and
wind tunnels.
Figure 4.5: Pitot static tube
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10
Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the
Pitot tube and using the theory of the manometer,
P
A
= P
2
+ gX
P
B
= P
1
+ g(X-h) +
max
gh
P
A
= P
B
P
2
+ gX = P
2
+ g(X h) +
man
gh
We know that , substituting this in to the above gives

) ( 2
max
1
=
gh
V
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4.1.3 Venturi meter
The Venturi meter is a device for
measuring discharge in a pipe.
It consists of a rapidly converging
section, which increases the
velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure.
It then returns to the original
dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging diffuser section. By
measuring the pressure differences
the discharge can be calculated.
This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement as
energy losses are very small.
Figure 4.6: A Venturi meter
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Applying Bernoulli Equation between (1) and (2), and using continuity
equation to eliminate V
2
will give :

(4.4)

and Q
ideal
= V
1
A
1
To get the actual discharge, taking into consideration of losses due to
friction, a coefficient of discharge, Cd, is introduced.

Q
actual
= Cd Q
ideal
= (4.5)

It can be shown that the discharge can also be expressed in terms of
manometer reading :

Q
actual
= (4.6)

where
man
= density of manometer fluid
1
2
2
2
1
2 1
2 1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
A
A
Z Z
g
p p
g
V

1
2
2
2
1
2 1
2 1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
A
A
Z Z
g
p p
g
A C
d
1
1 2
2
2
1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

A
A
gh
A C
man
d

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Example 4.1
A Venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3 m
and a throat diameter of 0.2 m is used to measure the
volume of gas flowing through a pipe. The discharge
coefficient of the meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific
weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m
3
,
calculate the volume flowing when the pressure
difference between the entrance and the throat is
measured as 0.06 m on a water U-tube manometer.
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14
What we know from the problem
statement :

g
g = 19.62 N/m
2
C
d
= 0.96
d
1
= 0.3m
d
2
= 0.2m

Calculate Q:

V
1
= Q/0.0707 V
2
= Q/0.0314
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For the manometer :

--- (1)

For the Venturi meter :

--- (2)

Combining (1) and (2) :
P w P g g
gR R z g P gz P + + = + ) (
2 2 1 1
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
z
g
V
g
P
z
g
V
g
P
g g
+ + = + +

2
2 1 2 2 1
803 . 0 ) ( 62 . 19 V z z P P + =
s m Q C Q
s m Q
s m V
V
ideal d
ideal
ideal
/ 816 . 0 85 . 0 96 . 0
/ 85 . 0
2
2 . 0
047 . 27
/ 047 . 27
423 . 587 803 . 0
3
3
2
2
2
2
= = =
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
t
423 . 587 ) ( 62 . 19
1 2 2 1
+ = z z P P
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4.1.4 Sharp edge circular orifice

(1)
(2)
h
datum
streamline
Consider a large tank, containing an ideal fluid, having a small sharp-
edged circular orifice in one side.
If the head, h, causing flow through the orifice of diameter d is constant
(h>>d), Bernoulli equation may be applied between two points, (1) on the
surface of the fluid in the tank and (2) in the jet of fluid just outside the
orifice. Hence :
losses
g
V
g
P
h
g
V
g
P
+ + + = + + 0
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1

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Now P
1
= P
atm
and as the jet in unconfined, P
2
= P
atm
. If the flow is
steady, the surface in the tank remains stationary and V
1
~ 0 (z
2
=0,
z
1
=h) and ignoring losses we get :

or the velocity through the orifice,

(4.7)

This result is known as Toricellis equation.
Assuming no loses, ideal fluid, V constant across jet at (2), the
discharge through the orifice is
h z z
g
V
= =
2 1
2
2
2
gh V 2
2
=
2 0
V A Q =
Technical Studies
18
where A
0
is the area of the orifice

For the flow of a real fluid, the velocity is less than that given by eq.
4.7 because of frictional effects and so the actual velocity V
2a
, is
obtained by introducing a modifying coefficient, Cv, the coefficient
of velocity:

Velocity,
(4.8)

or
(typically about 0.97)
gh 2 A Q
0
=
gh C V
v a
2
2
=
velocity l theoretica
velocity actual
C
v
=
Technical Studies
19
As a real fluid cannot turn round a sharp bend, the jet
continues to contract for a short distance downstream (about
one half of the orifice diameter) and the flow becomes
parallel at a point known as the vena contracta (Latin :
contracting vein).
d
0

approx.
d
0
/2
Vena contracta
P = P
atm

Figure 4.8: The formation of vena contracta
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20
The area of discharge is thus less than the orifice area and a
coefficient of contraction, C
c
, must be introduced.

Hence the actual discharge is :

(typically about 0.65)

or introducing a coefficient of discharge, C
d
, where :

(typically 0.63)

(4.9)

(4.10)
orifice of area
contracta vena at jet of area
C
c
=
gh 2 C A C Q
v 0 c a
=
discharge l theoretica
discharge actual
C
d
=
gh 2 A C Q
0 d a
=
Cd = Cc . Cv
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21
4.1.5 Nozzles
In a nozzle, the flow contracts gradually to the outlet and hence the area
of the jet is equal to the outlet area of the nozzle.
i.e. C
c
= 1.0
therefore C
d
= C
v
Taking a datum at the nozzle, Torricellis equation gives the total energy
head in the system as it assumes an ideal fluid and hence no loss of
energy, i.e. theoretical head :

(4.11)
d
nozzle

contraction
within nozzle
Figure 4.9: Contraction within a nozzle
g
V
h
t
2
2
2
=
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But the actual velocity is :
V
2a
= C
v
V
2

and the actual energy in the jet is :

as P
2
and z
2
are zero
Therefore the actual energy head is :
(4.12)

And the loss of energy head, h
f
, in the nozzle due to friction is :

(4.13)
g
V
h
a
a
2
2
2
=
g
V C
h
v
a
2
2
2
2
=
g
V C
g
V
h h h
v
a t f
2 2
2
2
2
2
= =
) 1 (
2
2
2
2
v
C
g
V
=
t v f
h C h ) 1 (
2
=
theoretical actual
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4.1.6 Flow over notches and weirs
Notch
is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir, which
extends above the surface of the liquid.
It is usually a device for measuring discharge.
A weir is a notch on a larger scale usually found in rivers.
It may be sharp crested but also may have a substantial
width in the direction of flow it is used as both a flow
measuring device and a device to raise water levels.
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24
Weir Assumptions
assume that the velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is
small so that kinetic energy can be neglected.
assume that the velocity through any elemental strip
depends only on the depth below the free surface.
These are acceptable assumptions for tanks with notches or
reservoirs with weirs, but for flows where the velocity
approaching the weir is substantial the kinetic energy must
be taken into account (e.g. a fast moving river).

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25
A General Weir Equation
To determine an expression for the theoretical flow through a notch we will consider
a horizontal strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in the
figure
velocity through the strip
V =
discharge through the strip,

Integrating from the free surface, h = 0, to the weir crest, h = H gives the expression
for the total theoretical discharge,

Qtheoretical =
gh 2
gh h b AV Q 2 o o = =
dh bh g
H
}
0
2
1
2
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Rectangular Weir
For a rectangular weir the width does not
change with depth so there is no relationship
between b and depth h. We have the
equation, b = constant = B.
Substituting this with the general weir
equation gives:

(4.14)

Figure 4.11 :
A rectangular weir
dh h g B Q
H
O
l theoretica
}
=
2
1
2
2
3
2
3
2
H g B =
To calculate the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of discharge,
C
d
, which accounts for losses at the edges of the weir and contractions in
the area of flow, giving :

(4.15)
2
3
2
3
2
H g B C Q
d actual
=
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27
Example 4.2
Water flows over a sharp-crested weir 600 mm wide. The measured head
(relative to the crest) is 155 mm at a point where the cross-sectional area
of the stream is 0.26 m
2
. Calculate the discharge, assuming that C
d
=
0.61.

As first approximation,
H = 155 mm
Cross sectional
Area = 0.26 m
2

2
3
2
3
2
H g B C Q
d actual
=
2
3
) 155 . 0 ( / 62 . 19 6 . 0
3
2
61 . 0
2
m s m m =
= 0.0660 m3/s
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Velocity of approach =

= 0.254 m/s

H + V
1
2
/2g = (0.155 + 0.00328) m = 0.1583 m

Second approximation:

Further refinement of the value could be obtained by a new calculation of V
1

(0.0681 m
3
/s 0.26 m
2
), a new calculation of H + V
1
2
/2g and so on. One
correction is usually sufficient, however, to give a value of Q acceptable to
three significant figures.
2
3
26 . 0
/ 0660 . 0
m
s m
m
s m
s m
g
V
3
2
2 2
10 28 . 3
/ 62 . 19
) / 254 . 0 (
2
= =
( ) s m s m x / 0681 . 0 / 1583 . 0 6 . 0 62 . 19 61 . 0
3
2
3 3 2 / 3
=
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Summary
Chapter 4 emphasized basically on the application of
Bernoulli equation in order to solve problems related
to fluid mechanics and the application of momentum
equation to solve type of flows problem.
Students should concentrate more on the examples
given in chapter 4 and try to relate the concept in the
real scenario.
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30
Thank You

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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A.

Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM)

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