Motivation

Motivation
The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goal, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. Need- An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.

The motivation process

Unsatisfied need

tension

drive

Reduction of tension

Satisfied need

Search behaviour

Theories of Motivation
The theories of motivation can be conveniently divided into two broad categories.
1. 2. Content Theories Process Theories

Content theories of motivation

Content theories focus primarily on individual needs. These theories suggest that the managers job is to create a work environment that responds positively to individual needs. They help to explain how poor performance, undesirable behaviours, low satisfaction, and the like, can be caused by blocked needs or needs that are not satisfied on the job.

Content theories of Motivation

Hierarchy of needs theory McGregors Theory X and Theory Y ERG Theory Acquired Needs Theory Two-Factor Theory

Limitations of content theories

The content theories provide an understanding of the particular work-related factors that start the motivational process, but promote little understanding of why people choose a particular behaviour to accomplish task-related goals.
These theories do not account for variations in behaviours and attitudes. There are several external forces, apart from internal needs that inflence human behaviour.

1. Hierarchy of needs theory

Maslows hierarchy of needs theory offers a pyramid of physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization needs. Physiological needs Most basic of all human needs. Need for biological maintenance Need for food, water and sustenance

Safety needs Need for security, protection and stability in the physical and interpersonal events of day-to-day life. Social needs Need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in ones relationships with other persons.

Esteem needs Need for respect, prestige, recognition Need for personal sense of competence. Self-Actualization needs Highest need level Need to fulfill ones self to grow and use abilities to fullest and most creative extent.

Maslow identifies three lower order needs, physiological, safety and social. Higher order needs are esteem and self-actualization.
Assumptions made Individuals attempt to satisfy basic needs before directing behaviour toward higher-order needs.

 Problems and Limitations Does not address the issue of individual differences; has received limited research support; and fails to caution about the dynamic nature of needs needs change.

2. McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas Mcgregor is known for his formulation of two set of assumptions about human nature. Theory X assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility and need to be closely controlled to work effectively

 Theory Y assumes that workers can exercise self direction, accept and actually seek out responsibility and consider work to be a natural activity Theory Y captured the true nature of workers and he believed that they can be participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs would maximize employee motivation.

3. ERG Theory
Alderfers ERG Theory identifies existence, relatedness and growth needs

Existence needs Existence needs are desires for physiological and material well being. Relatedness needs Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Growth needs Growth needs are desires for continued personal growth and development.

 ERG theory offers a more flexible approach to understanding human needs than does Maslows strict hierarchy. ERG theory contends that more than one need may be activated at the same time. Assumptions made Individuals who fail to satisfy growth needs become frustrated, regress, and refocus attention on lower-order needs.

4. Acquired needs theory

Developed by McClelland Identified 3 needs Need for achievement Need for affiliation Need for power

Need for achievement Need for achievement is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex tasks. Need for affiliation Need for affiliation is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others. Need for power Need for power is the desire to control others and influence their behaviour

 McClelland posits that the three needs,need for achievement, the need for affiliation and the need for power are acquired over time, as a result of life experiences. The theory encourages managers to learn how to identify the presence of these 3 needs in themselves and in others and to be able to create work environments that are responsive to the respective need profiles.

Practical application value If a persons needs can be assessed, then management can intervene through training to develop needs that are compatible with organizational goals

5. Two-Factor Theory
Herzbergs two-factor theory identifies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job satisfaction.

 Hygiene factors in job context, the work setting, are sources of job dissatisfaction.
Motivator factors in job content, the tasks people actually do, are sources of job satisfaction.

 Also known as motivator-hygiene theory. Hygiene factors in job context are organizational policies, working conditions, salary, relationships with peers, status and security. Motivator factor in job content are achievement, recognition, work, responsibility, advancement and growth.

 According to this theory, improving a hygiene factor, will not make people satisfied with their work; it will only prevent them from being dissatisfied. Adding motivators to peoples job will enhance performance. When motivators are not available, low job satisfaction causes a lack of motivation and performance suffers.

 Some of the characteristics that managers have focused on may result in a comfortable work setting, but do not motivate employees. Practical application value- Talks in terms that managers understand . Identifies motivators that managers can develop, finetune , and use.

Problems and limitations Assumes that every worker is similar in needs and preferences; fails to meet scientific measurement standards; and has not been updated to reflect changes in society with regard to job security and pay needs.

Process theories of motivation

Process theories focus on the thought processes that take place within the minds of people and that act to influence their behaviour. Whereas a content approach may identify job security as an important need for an individual, a process approach probes further to identify how this need leads the person to behave in particular ways relative to available rewards and work opportunities.

Equity Theory
Adams equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others.

Equity Theory
Adam argues that when people gauge the fairness of their work outcomes relative to others, any perceived inequity is a motivating state of mind.
This occurs whenever someone believes that the rewards received for their work contributions compare unfavorably to the rewards other people appear to have received for theirs.

Equity Theory Cont.

Felt negative inequity exists when an individual feels that he or she has received relatively less than others have in proportion to work inputs. Felt positive inequity exists when an individual feels that he or she has received relatively more than others have.

Equity Theory Cont.

When either exists, the individual will likely engage in one or more of the following behaviors to restore a sense of equity. 1. Change work outputs ( e.g., reduce performance efforts) 2. Change the outcomes (rewards) received (e.g., ask for a raise)

3. Leave the situation (e.g., quit) 4. Change the comparison points (e.g., compare self to a different coworker) 5. Psychologically distort the comparisons (e.g., rationalize that the inequity is only temporary and will be resolved in the future) 6. Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person.

Equity Theory Cont.

Managerial implications
The equity comparison intervenes between the allocation of rewards and the ultimate impact on the recipients. What may seem fair and equitable to a group leader, may be perceived as unfair and inequitable by a team member after comparisons are made with other teammates.

2. Expectancy Theory
Vrooms expectancy theory argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effortperformance relationships and work outcomes.

Components of expectancy theory

Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality* valence

 Expectancy is the probability that work effort will be followed by performance accomplishment. Instrumentality is the probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes. Valence is the value to the individual of various work outcomes.