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Appropriate for all types of research, all 4 types of Scientific Method For any area of research
Generalizability
Replicable Statistics is never having to say youre certain.
Y=f(X1,X2)
Have explanatory power State Expected Relationship & Direction if Possible Be Testable Written as simply as possible Relate to general, not specific phenomenon Be plausible
Z is ANTECEDENT
Z X Y
Z is INTERVENING X Z Y
SPURIOUS RELATIONSHIPS
X ? Y We hypothesize that X leads to Y, but the true relationship is that another factor is causing both. The only way we see this is by reasoning in our model and in our theory. Just looking at the data, we cannot uncover the causal relationships at work.
Two are compliments, not strictly opposites. HA and H0 are: Mutually Exclusive & Exhaustive HA: X is true H0 : X is not true. HA: X is related to Y H0 : X is not related to Y HA: X is positively related to Y H0 : X is negatively related or not related to Y.
Example: Average score on the stats exam is 70. Our class has an average of 78. We can test the hypothesis that our class average was higher just because of sampling error and the hypothesis that our class average was higher because we have smarter students A hypothesis is a statement about a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis H0 states there is no true difference between scores in the population. The alternative hypothesis Ha, is that the difference in our sample is truly reflecting a real difference in the population, that the difference is not due to sampling error.
All hypothesis testing is done against the null hypothesis The Null Hypothesis H0 is the result you could get by chance. The Alternative Hypothesis Ha is your research hypothesis. It is what you believe will happen.
The Model
A basic summary of our theory, specifying the relationships among all the relevant factors Answers the research question by explaining the Dependent Variable Is a representation of real world Outlines the hypotheses we believe and will try to test DIAGRAM on the next slides should clarify the relationships.
Each circle is a variable: Independent variables pointing to the dependent variable Each arrow is a hypothesis about the relationship between variables (causality) Overall, model represents part (or all) of our theory
Level of Analysis
(we implicitly make these decision when we chose the Dependent variable) Choose: Level of Analysis Choose: Unit of Analysis Choose: Cases How do we do this?
Getting to Data
What will your population be? Your sample of cases should be representative of the population. When thinking about your cases be obsessively specific! What will qualify as a case? What is the time frame?
Concepts
Part of our theories Define as clearly and concretely as possible Link to Empirical phenomenon
Variables
Empirically observable characteristics of some phenomenon Varies across cases 3 ways to discuss a Variable:
2. Is it observed?
Latent Manifest.
3. How it is measured
OPERATIONALIZATION
convert abstract theoretical notions into concrete terms, thereby allowing measurement. OR process of applying measuring instrument in order to assign values to some characteristic or property of the phenomenon being studied. OR TURN CONCEPTS INTO VARABLES and then into DATA
More possible values is usually better Mutually Exclusive - a case can hold only one value
Exhaustive - Every Case has a value If a case changes over time so that it holds different values of a variable you should?
Measurement
Creating variables often requires creativity Approximate concept that you wish to measure. How to measure abstract concepts? - also depends on level of analysis.
Types of Operationalization
Orderable Discrete
Qualitative variable Could fall into either of the above Presence or absence of something
Interval
Ratio Scale
Never 2-3 per day 1 pack per day > 1 pack per day
http://www.douglas.bc.ca/psychd/ handouts/measurement_scales.htm
DATA
Choose cases based on level
Represent population we want to generalize about Collect facts about each of our variables for each of our cases.
V2
VK
Examples of Measurements
www.freedomhouse.org/research/free world/2000/table1.htm
www.transparency.org/documents /cpi/2001/cpi2001.html