Transformer Basics

Electro-magnetism: Faradays laws First Law : Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an electromotive force (EMF) is always induced in it Second Law : The magnitude of the induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Two different ways of changing the flux: Sweeping a magnet past a loop of wire (rotating machines) Changing the current that originates the field (transformer)

What is transformer? A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils.

Transformer Applications

AC power transmission
STEP-UP

Transformer Transformer
These will be discussed in later lectures.

STEP-DOWN

Impedance matching
Electrical Isolation

AC power transmission
Before invention of transformers, in initial days of electrical industry, power was distributed as direct current at low voltage. The voltage drop in lines limited the use of electricity to only urban areas where consumers were served with distribution circuits of small length. All the electrical equipment had to be designed for the same voltage. Development of the first transformer around 1885 dramatically changed transmission and distribution systems.

AC power transmission
The alternating current (AC) power generated at a low voltage could be stepped up for the transmission purpose to higher voltage and lower current, reducing voltage drops and transmission losses. Use of transformers made it possible to transmit the power economically hundreds of kilometers away from the generating station.

AC power transmission
Step-down transformers then reduced the voltage at the receiving stations for distribution of power at various standardized voltage levels for its use by the consumers.

POWER STATION 400/132 KV

132/11 KV

132/33 KV

LARGE INDUSTRY 11 KV/240 V RESIDENTIAL

Basic Principle of Transformer

As mentioned earlier the transformer is a static device working on the principle of Faraday's law of induction. Faraday's law states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil when the flux linkages associated with that coil changes. This emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Basic Operation
Basic Operation: The primary winding is connected to an ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.

Basic Operation

Basic Operation

Principle parts of a transformer and their functions are: The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux. The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source. The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the load. The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical damage.

Constructional Features
Constructional aspects can be divided into three categories. 1. Core construction 2. Winding arrangements 3. Cooling aspects

Constructional Features
Core Construction: Transformer core for power frequency application is made of highly permeable material. The high value of permeability helps to give a low reluctance for the path of the flux and the flux lines mostly confine themselves to the iron. Silicon steel in the form of thin laminations is used for the core material.

Constructional Features
The steel has a permeability many times that of free space, and the core thus confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate above main frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz.

Constructional Features
The composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current, and frequency. Size limitations and construction costs are also factors to be considered.

Constructional Features
Depending upon core configuration transformer is divided into two categories. (a) core type. (b) shell type

Core Type

Shell type

Constructional Features

Constructional Features
Why Laminated Core? To minimize the loss resulting from eddy currents, transformer cores are LAMINATED. Since the thin, insulated laminations do not provide an easy path for current, eddy-current losses are greatly reduced. The main strategy in mitigating these wasteful eddy currents in transformer cores is to form the iron core in sheets, each sheet covered with an insulating varnish so that the core is divided up into thin slices. The result is very little width in the core for eddy currents to circulate in:

Constructional Features

Constructional Features
Eddy current losses increase with frequency, so transformers designed to run on higherfrequency power (such as 400 Hz, used in many military and aircraft applications) must use thinner laminations to keep the losses down to a respectable minimum. This has the undesirable effect of increasing the manufacturing cost of the transformer.

Constructional Features
Winding arrangement: Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding transformer one is connected to a voltage source and creates the flux is called as a primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is induced by induction is called a secondary. If the secondary voltage is less than that of the primary the transformer is called a step down transformer. If the secondary voltage is more then it is a step up transformer.

Constructional Features
A step down transformer can be made a step up transformer by making the low voltage winding its primary. Hence it may be more appropriate to designate the windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The winding with more number of turns will be a HV winding. The current on the HV side will be lower as V-I product is a constant and given as the VA rating of the machines. Also the HV winding needs to be insulated more to withstand the higher voltage across it.

Schematic Symbol

Air Core

Ferrite Core

Iron Core

Classification of Transformer

By power level (from fraction of a watt to many megawatts), By application (power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation), By frequency range (power, audio, RF) By voltage class (a few volts to about 750 kilovolts) By cooling type (air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled, etc.) By purpose (rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.). By ratio of the number of turns in the coils

Transformer Losses
Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from: Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

Transformer Losses

Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.

Transformer Losses

Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heating.

Transformer Losses

Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.

Stray losses
Leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.