Statistical Data Collection & Sampling Techniques

The Heart of Research

It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. -Sir Arthur Conan Doyle as Sherlock Holmes

How important is it?

Data collection is an extremely important

part of any research because the conclusions of a study are based on what the data reveal. There are several ways of collecting data. The choice of procedures usually depends on the objectives and design of the study and the availability of time, money and personnel.

Examples of data
Demographic information such as age,

sex, household size, civil status or religion. Social and economic information such as educational attainment, health status, extent of participants in social organizations, occupation, income, housing condition and the like. Scores in exams, grades, etc.

Types of Research Data

Generally classified as:

1. quantitative or
2. qualitative

Types based on their source:

1. Primary 2. Secondary

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

1. Quantitative Data

- are information which can be counted or expressed in numerical values. Ex: age, grades, income, test score, number of children, level of satisfaction, amount of sales, length of service, etc.

2. Qualitative Data
These are descriptive information which has

no numerical values. Ex: attitude or perception towards something, process used in accomplishing an activity, a persons experiences, ones idea about certain concepts, situation, or phenomenon like drug abuse , family planning, immunization, etc.

Primary and Secondary data

According to source, data may

also be classified as Primary or secondary. Two important questions to be considered are: Who will provide that data? Where will the data be collected?

Primary Data
These are information

collected directly from the subjects being studied, such are people, areas, or objects

Primary Data - Examples

o Surveys o Focus groups o Questionnaires

o Personal interviews
o Experiments and observational

study

Secondary Data
These are information collected

from other available sources, like recent censuses, or data collected by large scale national or world wide surveys, such as agriculture and industry surveys, demographic and health surveys, data of completed studies.

Secondary Data Examples of Sources

o City/municipal health offices

o Vital Statistics birth, death certificates

o Hospital, clinic, school nurse records

o Private and foundation databases

o City and government records o Surveillance data from government

programs o Census, NSO, etc.

Techniques of Collecting Data

The choice of the best way to collect data

depends largely on the type of data to be collected and the source of data. Before starting to collect data, a researcher should decide: A. What data to collect, B. Where or from whom the data will be obtain, C. What instrument/s or device/s to use in collecting the data.

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA:

1. Surveys

a. Interview method b. Indirect/questionnaire method 2. Registration method 3. Observation method

Survey Types
Surveys can be descriptive or explanatory involve entire populations or samples of populations capture a moment or map trends can be administered in a number of ways
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Survey Construction
Survey construction involves formulating questions and response categories writing up background information and instruction working through organization and length determining layout and design
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Advantages of questionnaire method:

less expensive than an interview. Less time - consuming Can cover greater number of respondents Can easily gather data. Can give confidential response since they

can answer them in private. Answers obtained are free from any influence from the interviewer.

Disadvantages of questionnaire method:

Yield limited responses. Cannot ask more

questions Mailed questionnaire -less turn-out/ High proportion of non-return Can be influenced by coaching. Tends to yield wrong information since it gives incomplete information Questionnaires cannot be used on illiterate respondents.

Structured Interview
a face to face interaction between the

data collector (the interviewer), and the source of information (the respondent). The interviewer directly asks the respondent questions from a prepared instrument, which is called an Interview Schedule.

Interviewing
involves asking respondents a series of

open-ended questions can generate both standardized quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data However, the complexities of people and the complexities of communication can create many opportunities for miscommunication and misinterpretation
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Interview Types
Interviews can range from formal to informal structured to unstructured can be one on one or involve groups

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Advantages of Face to face Interview

The interviewer can observe the

body language of the respondent. The interviewer can probe for clarification of ambiguous responses.-raise as many questions Interview is effective for semi-literate or illiterate respondents. The expected response rate in an interview is high.

Disadvantages of Face to Face Interview

More expensive because of travel cost. Skilled interviewer is required. Training

is needed for those who lack experience and/ or those who are not yet skilled in conducting interviews. Time-consuming May give bias response to the interviewer which for him can satisfy the interviewer.

 In-depth interview

Others:

To answer How and Why questions USE FGD OR KII. 1. Example: In a Study about domestic violence, with a victim as key informant, the interviewer may ask: Some people believe that men have the right to discipline their wives. Do you share the same belief? (Probe) Why or why not? 2. In a study on students attitude towards cheating in class, with teachers as key informants, the interviewer may ask: Why do you think student cheat? (Probe) Can you explain what you mean by habit? Is cheating rampant in your classes? How rampant it is? (Probe) Why is it so? Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Others:

Observation - oldest A. Participant Observation B. Non-Participant Observation Content Analysis

Observation
relies on the researchers ability to gather

data through their senses - and allows researchers to document actual behaviour rather than responses related to behaviour However, the observed can act differently when surveilled, and observations can be tainted by a researchers worldview

Hawthorne's effect

Observation Types
Observation can range from non-participant to participant candid to covert from structured to unstructured

Experimentation
Experimentation explores cause

and effect relationships by manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent variable

Experimentation
Pure experimentation requires both

a controlled environment and the use of a randomly assigned control group This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments conducted in the real-world

REMEMBER!

Data collection choice

What you must ask yourself: Will the data answer my research question?

Data collection choice

To answer that You much first decide what your research question is Then you need to decide what data/variables are needed to scientifically answer the question

Data collection choice

If that data exist in secondary form,

then use them to the extent you can, keeping in mind limitations. But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection, then it is the method of choice.

DATA SAMPLING METHODS

SAMPLING
Main aim: to obtain a sample

that is representative of the target population

PROBABILITY SAMPLING (random)- attempt to select units such that each has a definable probability of being chosen. - attempts to ensure that each unit has the same chance of being included as every other unit in the sample frame.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING (nonrandom) - are all sampling procedures in which the units that make up the sample are collected with no specific probability structure in mind. Examples: volunteer respondents, most easily accessible (in geographical terms, payment for participation, considered by the researcher as in some way typical of the target population, units are chosen with no obvious design

Methods of Sampling

Simple Random sampling Systematic sampling Convenience sampling Stratified sampling Quota Sampling

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 Simple Random Sampling Selection so that each individual member has an equal chance of being selected (eg. Roll of dice, random number tables, fishbowl method) Systematic Sampling Select some starting point and then select every k th element in the population

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 Convenience Sampling Use results that are easy to get

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 Stratified Sampling First need to split the population into sub-populations Draw a sample from each stratum

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Quota Sampling
- interviews, mail surveys, telephone surveys are some examples. - is based on defining the distribution of characteristics required in the sample, and selecting respondents until a quota has been filled. Example: 50 women, 50 men

Assignment : by pair (1 yellow paper)

Look for 5 theses (published or

unpublished, local or international) at the library or the internet. Cite the title of the study and the authors properly. Identify the IV and the DV of the study. Identify the sampling method used in the study NOTE: No Same Study Please

Study:
Demographics vs. epidemiology Latest Philippine Demographic profile National Health Situation Top ten leading cause of deaths Formulas and computations on: Mortality rate (infant & maternal) Morbidity rate Crude birth rate Crude death rate Incidence rate

Group project: (100 points) to be submitted on or before July 5, 2012

5 members per group Submit a letter to the medical director of

any hospital in Midsayap (MDC, AMADO, COHESCO, Pesante) to allow you to interview their billing and records personnel. Submit to me a copy of the letter approved by the medical director.

Topics covered: Common statistical data used in health administration

1. Population census 2. Percentage of occupancy 3. Mortality/morbidity rates 4. Computation of bills (Length of stay/discharge) 5. Miscellaneous rates

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