Animal nutrition

The modes of nutrition

Nutrition refers to all the processes by which organisms obtain and use the nutrients required for maintaining life. Nutrients are substances which organisms need for releasing energy, for growth and repair, and to sustain all life processes The different ways that organisms obtain and use nutrients are called the modes of nutrition.
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Homeostasis - metabolism
Nutrition Mode Photoautotroph Energy Source Light Inorganic chem Light Organic chem Carbon Source CO2

Chemoautotroph
Photoheterotroph Chemoheterotroph

CO2
Organic chem Organic chem
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All of these nutritional modes are found among prokaryotes! Eukaryotes are not as diverse in their nutritional modes.

Photoautotrophs photosynthesis
Ancient pathway, but not universal Cyanobacteria, Algae, Plants

light

CO2 + H2O O2 + CH2O

chlorophyll light

Purple-sulfur bacteria

CO2 + H2S Ss + CH2O

chlorophyll
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Chemoautotrophs

1. Nitrifying bacteria which derive energy by oxidizing ammonia into nitrates. Eg: Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter.

2. Sulphur bacteria which derive energy by oxidising hydrogen sulphide to sulphur. Eg: Thiobacillus, Beggiatoa. 3. Iron Bacteria which derive energy by oxidising ferrous ions into ferric form. Eg: Ferrobacillus, Gallionella.
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Nitrosomonas internal membranes use NH4+ electrons in an ETS to produce ATP ATP and protons used to reduce CO2 to CH2O

http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/images/thumb/8/89/Zdrs0232.jpg/350px-Zdrs0232.jpg

Rhizobium needs anaerobic conditions to convert N2 into NH4+ Legumes produce heme based molecules and rapid respiration to eliminate oxygen from root nodules that house the bacterium symbiosis

http://www.interet-general.info/IMG/rhizobium-nodule-1.jpg

Photoheterotrophs strange

Bacteria: Rhodospirillum, Rhodomicrobium

Light

C2H4O2- 2 CH2O

Chemoheterotrophs common!

Escherichia coli and most eukaryoteseven plants! CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O + ATP Carbohydrate, etc. provides both the energy source and the carbon source
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Aerobic Respiration

Chemoheterotrophy
Glycolysis carbohydrate to pyruvate (in cytosol!) Citric Acid Cycle pyruvate to carbon dioxide (in cytosol or matrix) Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation (in mesosomes or cristae)

CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O Anaerobic Fermentation

Glycolysis to pyruvate (in cytosol) Fermentive step(s) to return NAD+ to glycolysis (in cytosol)

C6H12O6 C3H3O3- C2H5OH + CO2 C6H12O6 C3H3O3- H3CCHOHCOO11

Autotrophic nutrition

Chemoheterotrophic nutrition

Holozoic nutrition

Parasitic nutrition

Saprophytic nutrition

Herbivores
Carnivores Omnivores
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Heterotrophic nutrition consumes complex organic food material which originates from autotrophic organisms. There are several forms of heterotrophic nutrition: 1. Holozoic nutrition 2. Saprophytic nutrition 3. Parasitic nutrition 4. Mutualism 5. Commensalism

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Intracellular Digestion
Lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles Digestion occurs within the cell Sponges only digest food intracellularly

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Extracellular Digestion

Breakdown of food outside of cells Gastrovascular cavities serve as digestive sacs Enzymes in cavity begin extracellular digestion After absorption, digestion is completed intracellularly Animals with alimentary canals organize digestion in stepwise fashion
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Saprophytes

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Saprophytes
saprophytes obtain food from dead organic matter, e.g. bacteria and fungi Mucor is a bread mould (fungus) which depends on bread for food; hyphae: filaments mycelium: colony of filaments

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Nutrition hyphae (rhizoid) go into bread; produce digestive enzymes to break down complex organic substances in bread into simple soluble compounds for absorption Extracellular digestion: digestion outside the cell Importance of saprophytism: dead organisms are broken down to recycle materials

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Tapeworm
1. Structure of a tapeworm flat, long, ribbon like, with many (1000) segments head with hooks & suckers for attachment onto the hosts intestinal wall each segment contains both male & female reproductive organs (bisexual) for selffertilization

2. Life cycle

Primary host - man; Secondary host - pig, for dispersal & infection

rostellum hook

sucker
immature proglottis

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3. Adaptation of tapeworm to the parasitic mode of life in the ileum hooks & suckers for attaching itself onto the intestinal wall of host reproductive organs are well developed; bisexual for self-fertilization numerous eggs are produced to increase the chances of survival of the species
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no digestive system is needed; absorption of digested food by diffusion through the body surface which is long & flattened to increase the surface area for absorption of digested food can undergo anaerobic (no O2) respiration in the intestine body is covered by a thick cuticle and secretes anti-enzymes to protect itself against the digestive juice of host

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4. Effect on host

host loses weight & becomes weak because tapeworm absorbs his digested food hooks & suckers damage the intestinal wall of host

5. Means to get rid of tapeworm

take in drugs pork should be inspected by government before selling; pork should be thoroughly cooked before eating good sewage system so that pigs do not get in contact with human faeces 23

2007 Paper II Q.5 (a)

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Mineral Nutrition in plants

Plants need certain nutrients. A deficiency in any one of them will cause the plant to be impaired in growth and other functions. 1. C, H, and O are the most abundant elements in plants. They are obtained from water from the soil and CO2 in the air (of course). 2. Other essential elements have historically been grouped as macronutrients and micronutrients. a. Macronutrients are needed in somewhat higher amounts, and make up at least 0.1% of the dry weight of most plants, although this can vary among plants and among tissues within plants. b. Elements needed in smaller amounts are known as 25 micronutrients.

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Advantages in hydroponics

no weeds, no pests. The necessary growth elements are readily available. Use less space Possible to automate can grow crops in greenhouse allow precise water and nutrient application

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2007 Paper II Q.5 (a)

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 3.

Holozoic nutrition involves the consumption of complex (solid) food which is broken down inside the organism into simple molecules which are then absorbed, e.g. most animals

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Eruption of teeth

20 primary teeth (deciduous (falling off) teeth) which appear during embryonic development

Are the temporary teeth of primary dentition Are also known as primary teeth, milk teeth, baby teeth

32 teeth of adult secondary dentition, or permanent dentition

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Teeth

32 Figure 24.8a, b

Primary and Secondary Teeth

A). Primary teeth, with the age of eruption given in months. (B). The adult teeth, with the age of eruption given in years.
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Carnivorous adaptations of mammals Food is chiefly meat which is a more 'nutritional' than plant food. Adaptations concern modifications to the jaw & its dentition: 1. Incisors are sharp and are used for nipping & biting

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2. Canines are long & pointed; used for killing prey and tearing flesh from body 3. Carnassial teeth are particularly large for crushing bones 4. Teeth of upper jaw tend to overlap those of the lower jaw for slicing meat like two blades of a pair of scissors

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5. Jaw muscles are well developed & powerful to grip prey firmly & crushing bones 6. No lateral jaw movement which might lead to dislocation of the jaw 7. Vertical movement of the jaw is large to allow a wide gap for capturing & killing prey 8. The alimentary canal is short, i.e. meat is relatively easy to be digested
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Skull of deer

Adaptations to particular diets

Herbivorous adaptations of mammals, e.g. deer 1. A horny pad replaces the upper incisors & canines 2. Diastema - a gap to separate newly nibbled food from those chewing at the back
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Dental formula of a sheep : 0033 3123 3. Cheek teeth with ridged surfaces because of differential wearing of enamel and dentine

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4. Jaws can move vertically & laterally - for more efficient grinding by teeth 5. Teeth have open roots - teeth grow continuously throughout life to replace wearing by constant grinding activity 6. Stomach is divided into a number of chambers with micro-organisms to secreted cellulase for the digestion of cellulose (ruminants). Regurgitation of food from stomach to mouth before passing into the remaining stomach compartments 7. The alimentary canal is relatively long because the digestion of plant material is difficult
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Comparison of herbivorous and carnivorous adaptations in mammals

Herbivores Carnivores
Incisors sharp, chisel-shaped for Incisors sharp, sometimes cutting or gnawing (bite until off) pointed, for nipping (to hold) & biting

Upper incisors sometimes absent

Canines, if present, small & incisor-like

never absent
Canines long & pointed for piercing & tearing

Diastema present
Molars & premolars flattened with ridges of enamel for grinding food

absent have pointed cusps for shearing food

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Comparison of herbivorous and carnivorous adaptations in mammals

Herbivores
Carnassial teeth absent

Carnivores

Carnassial teeth: last upper premolars & first molars Open pulp cavity for Closed cavity with no continuous teeth growth to growth when grow to full compensate for wearing size Teeth of upper jaw meet Teeth of upper jaw slide those of lower jaw end on past outside of lower jaw: to allow grinding of food shear food Lateral movement of lower No such movement to jaw aids grinding of food avoid dislocation of the lower jaw 42

Comparison of herbivorous and carnivorous adaptations in mammals

Herbivores
Jaw muscles relatively small
Less well developed processes for muscle attachment

Carnivores
.relatively large
Well developed .

Specialized stomach/caecum & appendix to accommodate symbiotic cellulose digesting micro-organisms Relatively long alimentary canal

No such adaptation; Caecum & appendix small

short alimentary canal

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Five stages of Food Processing

1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

Ingestion Digestion (enzymatic hydrolysis) Absorption Assimiation Elimination

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Principles of Digestion Mechanical breakdown of food has the effect of giving the food a large surface area which aids later digestion. The food must be made small enough to pass through cell membranes. Thus chemical digestion with the aid of enzymes occurs. amylase - breaks down starch into maltose

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Histological organization of the digestive tract

Mucosa lines digestive tract (mucous epithelium)

Moistened by glandular secretions Lamina propria and epithelium form mucosa Layer of dense irregular connective tissue
Smooth muscle arranged in circular and longitudinal layersSystem (ENS) Along most portions of the digestive tract inside the peritoneal cavity, the muscularis externa is covered 47 by a serous membrane known as the serosa

Submucosa

Muscularis externa

Serosa

http://visualhistology.net/products/atlas/VHA_Chpt13_The_Alimentary_Canal.html

The Structure of the Digestive Tract

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Mouth

Mechanical digestion: the act of chewing Carbohydrate digestion begins here Saliva moistens food and contains the enzyme Salivary Amylase breaks down complex carbs into simple sugars Chemical Digestion: enzymes breaking down carbohydrates Ball of moistened, partially digested food, known as the BOLUS, moves into the esophagus
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Swallowing and peristalsis - pharynx leads to both trachea & oesophagus - when swallowing food, epiglottis closes entrance to trachea to prevent food going into lungs

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The esophagus

Carries solids and liquids from the pharynx to the stomach

Passes through esophageal hiatus in diaphragm

The wall of the esophagus contains mucosal, submucosal, and muscularis layers

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Histology of the esophagus

Distinctive features of the esophageal wall include

Nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium Folded mucosa and submucosa

Mucous secretions by esophageal glands

A muscularis with both smooth and skeletal muscle portions Lacks serosa
Anchored by an adventitia (superficial layer of connective tissue surrounding an internal organ; fibers are continuous with those of surrounding tissues, providing support and stabilization)
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The Esophagus

A). Transverse cross section through the esophagus. (B). The esophageal mucosa (C). A color enhanced SEM of the transition between the esophageal and gastric mucosae at the lower esophageal sphincter.

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Peristalsis - longitudinal & circular muscles contract & relax alternately to drive food down oesophagus, small intestine, large intestine & out of the anus as faeces

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Stomach Contraction
Stomach contractions: blend food and propel forward Direction: from lower esophageal sphincter to pyloric sphincter Chyme: result of mixing, affects hormone secretions regulating peristalsis and emptying of stomach

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Structure of the Stomach Wall

Copyright 2001 Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Figure 14.7 Slide 14.9A 58

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Lining of ileum

TS of ileum showing villi

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Duodenum

Brunner's glands secrete mucus and sodium hydrogen carbonate Enzymes are produced by the breakdown of cells at the tips of the villi 1. Mucus lubricate and prevent autolysis 2. Mineral salts (NaHCO3) - produced by the Brunners glands to neutralize the acid chyme and provide a suitable pH for intestinal enzymes
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Bile juice
A complex green fluid produced by the liver, stored in the gall bladder, It contains no chemical enzymes but two important substances for digestion: 1. Sodium hydrogen carbonate - help to neutralize the acid chyme from the stomach and so create a more neutral pH for the enzymes of the small intestine 2. Bile salts - They emulsify fats into minute droplets - This is a physical digestion which increases the surface area for pancreatic lipase to act on

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Large Intestine

Unabsorbed material moves through large intestine, where water and salt are absorbed This removal of liquid forms solid-like feces Feces is stored in the rectum Feces is removed from the body, via the anus, by the process of ELIMINATION
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Cecum Lies below junction with small intestine Contains appendix Colon
Includes ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon Rectum

Last 20 cm of the large intestine

Anus Where defecation (expulsion of feces) occurs Obligate anaerobic (die in presence of oxygen) bacteria inhabit colon Break down indigestible material and produce vitamins & other molecules used by our bodies

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IRiw XMeKoGk&feature=grec_index

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Chemistry of Digestion
Digestion is defined as the breakdown of nutrients We consume: Proteins Carbohydrates Fats These are broken down into their simplest forms

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Overview

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Digestion of carbohydrates
Salivary amylase - digest starch into maltose Pancreatic amylase Carbohydrases in small intestine - consisting of maltase, lactase, and sucrase, etc., to complete the digestion of sugars into simple sugars

Copyright 2001 Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Slide 14.9B 74

Digestion of protein stomach

Gastric juice: specific cells secrete

Hydrochloric acid (from chief cells): produces a pH of about 2, breaks down large bits of food Intrinsic factor; made by same cells making acid, needed to absorb Vitamin B12

Mucus: protects stomach lining from acid Pepsinogen (from Parietal Cells) : with acid, begins protein breakdown Rennin: milk coagulation
Slide 14.9B 75

Copyright 2001 Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

endopeptidases break down peptide bonds in the middle of peptides peptidases break down peptides into amino acids
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Proteases (from pancreas) enterokinase trypsinogen trypsin (from intestine)

Proteins

trypsin

peptides

Chemotrypsinogen
Proteins

trypsin

chemotrypsin
peptides amino acids
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chemotrypsin
carboxypeptidase

Small peptides

Endopeptidases (first) hydrolyse peptide bonds at points along the protein

COOH

NH2

Carboxypeptidase liberates terminal amino acids

Exopeptidases acts on terminal amino acids

Aminopeptidase breaks terminal amino 78 acids with NH group

From instestinal juice

exopeptidases break down peptide bonds on terminal amino acids

aminopeptidases break down amino acids with a free amino (-NH2) group

Carboxypeptidase

liberates amino acids with free COOH

terminal

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2002 Paper II B Q.4 (b)

maternal digestion: protease breaks down proteins to amino acids (1) / peptides, in stomach and small intestine (1) absorbed into the maternal blood stream at the ileum (1) a.a. carried via veins to hearts, then along artery to uterine wall (1) a.a. diffuse across the *placenta into foetal blood circulation (1)
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Digestion of lipid

Bile salts - They emulsify fats into minute droplets - This is a physical digestion which increases the surface area for pancreatic lipase to act on Lipase -hydrolyses fats into fatty acids and glycerol
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Digestion of nucleic acid

Nuclease -changes nucleotides

nucleic

acids

into

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Other substances

Many substances in the diet are composed of small molecules that need little or no digestion. These include sugars, mineral ions, vitamins and water. These are absorbed by different transport mechanisms: Cholesterol and the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are absorbed into the epithelial cells of the ileum by lipid diffusion Mineral ions and water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by passive transport in the ileum Dietary monosaccharides are absorbed by active transport in the ileum Water is absorbed by osmosis in the ileum and colon.
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Regulation of Digestion
Regulation dependent on volume and content of food Neural and hormonal mechanisms coordinate glands Nervous system: stretch receptors in stomach GI activity stimulated by parasympathetic innervation Inhibited by sympathetic innervation

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Coordination secretion and absorption

Hormones: Stomach Gastrin: stimulates release of gastric juice

Duodenum
Secretin: stimulates pancreas to secrete water and bicarbonate Cholecystokinin (CCK): signal the smooth muscle of the gall bladder to contract Pancreozymin signals pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes
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food (lipid) gastric juice pancreatic fluid (bicarbonate) pancreatic enzyme (lipase) bile juice gall bladder stomach

Secretin

CCK
duodenum pancreas

CCK
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The Activities of Major Digestive Tract Hormones

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Absorption

Very little is absorbed from stomach and large intestine Most absorption is from SI Large SA of microvilli enhance absorption capacity Capillaries from villi converge into hepatic portal vein Cecum is an extension of LI E. coli live in LI and generate gas and vitamins Water is reabsorbed from SI and LI Diarrhea and constipation result from abnormal water reabsorption

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Absorption of Proteins and Carbohydrates

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Absorption of Fats

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Absorption of Nutrients

Proteins and carbohydrates: active transport Lipids: broken down and reassembled Water: osmosis Vitamins and minerals: assorted means

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The Intestinal Wall

D). Internal structures of a single villus, showing the capillary and lymphatic supplies E). A villus in sectional view (LM X 252)
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The structure of the small intestine (ileum) in relation to its functions

The millions of finger-like villi cover the entire surface of the intestinal lining. The villi are greatly folded to increase the surface area for absorption. The wall of the villi are thin (with only one layer of epithelial cells) and this permit the food to diffuse through easily. The epithelial cells lining the villi have cylindrical projections called brush border micro-villi. These further increase the surface area of absorption. The villi contain blood capillaries to absorb glucose and amino acids through the hepatic portal system to the liver. The villi contain lacteals to absorb fatty acids and glycerol. Glandular cells in epithelial lining which secrete digestive enzymes for digestion of food molecules as they pass through. Circular and longitudinal muscles involved with peristalsis. They mix the digestive juices with chyme so promoting hydrolysis of food by the enzymes. 99 Mucus secretion which protects epithelium.

The Intestinal Wall

Crypt of Lieberkuhn Cells secrete proteins, fluids, electrolytes Paneth cells secrete proteins Goblet cells secrete mucus These cells also serve as protective barrier against pathogens Epithelial cells undergo mitosis and travel to tips of villi the sloghed off Intestinal cell turnover is rapid ~ 3-5 days
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Absorption in large intestine

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Nutrients: Utilized or Stored Until Needed

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2006 Paper IIB Q.8

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2006 Paper IIB Q.8

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Liver

Largest gland in the body

Has two lobeslarge right and small left Contains approximately 100,000 lobules that serve as structural and functional units Triads, consisting of three structures, located between the lobules Bile ducttakes bile away from liver Hepatic arterybrings O2-rich blood to liver Hepatic portal veintransports nutrients from intestines The central veins of lobules enter a hepatic vein
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The Liver - an organ for digestion and homeostasis

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Blood system associated with the liver

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The Structure of The Liver

- Blood is drained into the liver by 2 vessels: the hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein - Blood is drained away from the liver by the hepatic vein

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- Branches of the hepatic artery & heptic portal vein combine within the liver to form common venules which lead into a series of channels called sinusoids. Sinusoids are lined with liver cells (hepatocytes) and drains into a branch of the hepatic vein called the central vein. - Between the hepatocytes are fine tubes called canaliculi in which bile is secreted. The canaliculi combine to form bile ducts which drain into the gall bladder. - The functional unit of the liver is the acinus. In the sinusoids materials are exchanged between the hepatocytes and blood.
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Structures of hepatocytes for exchange of materials with high metabolic rate: microvilli, large nucleus, many mitochondria, lysosomes and glycogen granules. The canaliculi are also lined with microvilli to remove bile from the hepatocytes by active transport.
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Sinusoids are lined with endothelial cells with specialized Kupffer cells of the reticulo-endothelial system for ingesting any foreign materials and damaged, worn out RBCs. Bilirubin is produced as a by-product & excreted in the bile.
-

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Functions of The Liver The liver has about 500 individual functions. They are grouped as below: 1.Carbohydrate metabolism - action of insulin & glucagon by inlets of Langerhans 2.Lipid metabolism - lipids are broken down or transported to storage areas - excess carbohydrates lipid - regulate cholesterol level; atherosclerosis & gall stones
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3. Protein metabolism - deamination - transamination to synthesize nonessential amino acids 4. Synthesis of plasma proteins, e.g. clotting factors: prothrombin & fibrinogen 5.Production of bile: bilirubin + bile salts + NaCl + HCO36.Storage of vitamins, especially fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K 7.Storage of minerals, e.g. Fe, K, Cu & Zn
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8. Formation & breakdown of RBCs - foetal liver produces RBCs - adult liver breaks down aged RBCs 9. Storage of blood - about 1500 cm3 of blood can be stored 10.Hormone breakdown, e.g. testosterone, insulin etc 11.Detoxification - Kupffer cells ingest foreign materials - hepatocytes convert toxic chemicals into harmless forms 12. Production of heat - when body temperature falls - triggered by the hypothalamus, is in response to adrenaline, thyroxine & nervous stimulus
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