Common Types of Woven Fabric

Basic weave structures

Woven Structure

Orientations in a Woven Fabric

Machine direction = "warp" or "end" Perpendicular direction = "fill" or "weft" or "pick" or "woof Frequently the warp direction corresponds with the 0, or longitudinal direction And fill with the 90 or transverse direction

However - this is not necessarily the case

and should be carefully noted.

Woven Fabrics
Generally characterized by two sets of perpendicular yarns systems One set is raised and lowered to make sheds (these are warp yarns) The other set is passed through these sheds, perpendicular to the warp yarns (these are fill, or pick or weft yarns)

Woven Fabrics
The structure of the woven fabric is the pattern of interlacing between the warp and weft yarns Yarns can float, or not interlace for some distance within a woven fabric

Crimp in Weaves
The crimp is defined as one less than the ratio of the yarn's actual length to the length of fabric it traverses. Crimp levels influence fiber volume fraction, thickness of fabric, and mechanical performance of fabric. High crimp leads to

Reduced tensile and compressive properties Increased shear modulus in the dry fabric and

the resulting composite Fewer regions for localized delamination between individual yarns.

Crimp

Crimp is defined as the ratio of excess length of yarn in a fabric to the length of the fabric
C = ly/ lf - 1

lf

ly

Crimp
Crimp is determined by the texture of the weave and the yarn size Generally, in weaving, the warp yarns have most of the crimp, the fill very little

This is a direct result of the warp yarns lifting

during weaving and the filling yarn being inserted along a straight path

Crimp

Various models of crimp exist, the most rigorous developed by Pierce in the 1930s.
1 D d2 1

p2

Crimp
pi = (lj D

j) cos j + D sin j

hi = (li D

i)sin i + D(1 - cos i)

ci = (li/pj) - 1 h1 + h2 = d 1 + d2 = D
Where pi =Thread spacing; li

= Modular length; ci = Yarn crimp; di = Yarn diameter; hi = Modular height; i = Weave angle D = Scale factor; sum of warp and weft diameters

i,j = warp and weft directions.

Crimp

Simplified crimp calculations: assume triangle wave shape

tan = (tf + tw) pf C= 1/cos - 1

tf + t w pf

Crimp

Thickness
Thickness is a difficult parameter to measure. Thickness is dependent on applied transverse pressure to the fabric Predictions of thickness show variation throughout the unit cell

Thickness
100% 98% 96%
nylon 6 nylon 6,6 polyester

Relative Thickness

94%
92% 90% 88% 86% 0 100 200 300

PEN

400

500

600

Testing Pressure (g/cm2)

Theoretical Predictions of Thickness

Consider yarns to be ellipses with major axes ai and minor axes bi. Thickness is between 4bw + 2bf t 2bw + 2bf

Theoretical Predictions of Thickness

Areal Density

Areal density is a measure of the weight per unit area of the fabric
Usually expressed in g/m2 or oz/yd2.

Areal density is a more reliable experimental metric for fabrics than thickness Areal density can be correlated to volume fraction

Areal Density

Areal density can be calculated as

A = [l (1+Cw) nw Lw + w (1+Cf) nf Lf]/(w l)
Where Ci = crimp of the i yarn, ni = number

of i yarns per unit length, Li = linear density of the i yarn, w = width, l = length, and I=warp or weft.

Areal Density

Woven Structures
Twill 3D Woven

Double Cloth Satin

Mechanical behavior: The Effect of Yarn Crimp

Plain weave

Intro to composites, Hull & Clyne

Mechanical behavior: The Effect of Yarn Crimp

Angle Interlock weave

T. Norman et al. FiberTex 92

Mechanical behavior: The Effect of Yarn Crimp

XYZ orthogonal weave

3D Weaves

Layer-to-layer

Through thickness

XYZ

Doubly Stiffened Woven Panel

Variations in Weave Design

If large yarns are used in the warp direction and small yarns are infrequently spaced in the weft direction, the resulting fabric resembles a unidirectional material. Weaves can be formed with gradients in a single or double axis by changing yarn size across the width or length Complex shapes can be achieved through floating and cutting yarns to reduce total number of yarns in some section of the part

Gradations through yarn size

Shape through floats

Issues with shaping woven fabrics

Tailoring the cross-section of a woven fabric will generally result in

a change in weave angle, a change in the distribution of longitudinal,

weaver, and fill, and a change in fiber volume fraction in consequence to the change in thickness.

Some fiber volume fraction effects can be controlled by tooling. The tailoring occurs in a discrete manner, using individual yarns, whereas most tooling will be approximately continuous.

Example of single taper weave

Consider a tapered panel where gradation in thickness is achieved by changing yarn size/count across the width

Design of tapered woven panel

Pick count is constant, warps and wefts per dent are modified to taper Z yarn path changes to accommodate the weave.

Number

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 3

Pick Columns per inch Warp per dent

Picks per column

11 13

15 Dent

17 19

21

23 25

27

29 31

Variation in Fiber Volume Fraction

60%

This variation in yarn packing results in variations in Vf for the resulting Fiber composite.

58% 56% 54% 52% 50% 48% 46% 44% 42% 40% 0.000 Calculated Target

Volume Fraction

0.500

1.000

1.500

2.000

2.500

Distance from Thin Edge (in)

Variation in weave angle

The weave angle will 55 also change throughout the width of the part due 50 to varying warp yarn count and part 45 thickness.
Weave Angle 40

35

30

Calculated Target

25 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Distance from Thin Edge (in)

Yarn Distributions

The distribution of warp, 60% weft, and Z yarn will also 55% vary throughout the part.
50% 45% 40% Yarn Distribution 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Distance from Thin Edge (in) 2.0 2.5

%Z

% Warp

% Fill

Variations in Modulus

All mechanical properties will vary throughout the part

14 12 10 E11 Tensile Modulus (Msi) 8 6 4 2 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Distance from Thin Edge (in) E22 E33

Volume Fraction
Volume fraction is the percent of fiber contained within a given volume (usually the composite in question) Volume fraction can be calculated from areal density

Vf = A r / t Where Vf = fiber volume fraction, A = areal

density, r = density of the fibers, and t = composite thickness

Process Control and Variability

Processing Errors
Damaged yarns Misplaced yarns

Sources of error

Machinery malfunction Machinery variability Bad control parameters Post-manufacturing deviations

Distortions in Woven Fabrics

On-line Monitoring of Manufacturing

Realtime feed-back from shedding and insertion mechanisms Visual scan of fabric surfaces Xray or neutron scan of fabric interior

Using tracer yarns

Three Dimensional Weaving

Uses "standard" weaving technology Complexity of weave is limited by number of independent shedding devices Some limitations on maximum thickness of fabric due to shed size and beatup limitations

Types of 3-D Woven Fabrics

XYZ Layer-to-layer Through-thickness

3-D Weaving

shed weaver warp

filling insertion

fabric movement

XYZ 3-D Woven Fabrics

Layer-to-layer 3-D Woven Fabrics

Through thickness 3-D Woven Fabrics

Components of 3-D Woven Fabrics

Longitudinal yarns

Parallel to warp direction

Weaving yarns (web yarns)

Lie in warp-thickness plane

Surface weavers
Lie in warp-thickness plane Located at t=0, t=max

Filling yarns
Lie in fill-thickness plane Generally aligned with the fill direction

Components of 3-D Woven Fabrics

1/hp Fills Longitudinals Weaver t

Surface Weaver

warp

Physical Relationships of 3D Woven Fabrics

Vf = W i / W c Wc = (1/hp) (1/hw) t Wi = mi Ai li

ll = (1/hp) lw = (1/hp)/cos(w) ls = (1/hp)/cos(s) lp = (1/hw)

Process Variables
Yarn sizes (all independent) Reed size (limited by yarn size) Picks per inch (limited by yarn size) Weave angle Number of filled warp positions

Preform Input Parameters

Using fiber volume (Vf), thickness (t), ply percentages (wt%) as inputs:

Here r is fiber density for each n fiber type and w is the preform areal density.

Yarn spacings needed for each ith system (warp, fill, weaver) can then be found using the tow linear density N:

Weave Angle Projection

1/ ppi l

Np / ppi l

tan a =

t ppil Np

Determining Preform Thickness Requirements

Tows required to meet thickness can be estimated assuming a common aspect ratio (AR):
d a b

AR= b a2 A=pab=pa AR
a= A =d 1 4AR pAR

a =

A = 6p

10 -4 in 2 3.9 6p

= .00455 in

= total thickness = t = 0.100 inches = 11 tows tows needed for thickness tow thickness 2a 2 .00455 inches

3D Woven Preform Case Study

Two sample preforms were specified, each with a 45weave angle requested:
Parameter %0 fiber 0 fiber type %90 fiber 90 fiber type %z fiber z fiber type Sample 1 47 IM7-12k 47 IM7-12k 6 AS4-3k Sample 2 77 IM7-12k 17 IM7-12k 6 AS4-6k

thickness (inches)
Volume fraction (%)

0.100
56

0.100
56

The preforms were procured from a weaver, then evaluated based on the design methodology.

Example Calculations

Example Calculations for Sample 2, using IM7-12k graphite tows for all inputs:

Fiber direction

% tows

directional areal density (oz/yd2) 57.23 12.63 4.46 74.32

0 :

lb yd = ypi = 57.23 2 110.4 ypi 25.0 lbs 16 oz 36 in yd oz 10 in

6 2 6 2 oz 10 in lb yd = ypi = 12.63 2 24.4 ypi 25.0 lbs 16 oz 36 in yd 6

0 90 ttt Total

77 17 6 100

90 :

z:

oz 10 in lb ypi = 4.46 2 25.0 lbs 16 oz yd

2 yd a cos i = 7.9 ypi 36 in

Applying the Methodology

Sample 1
Parameter
Required

0
Reported

90
Required Reported Required

ttt
Reported

areal weight (oz/yd2) yarns per inch Volume fraction

34.9 67.5 26.4

34.9 67.5 22.9

34.9 67.5 26.4

34.9 67 22.9

4.5 18.2 3.3

4.5 16 2.9

Sample 2
Parameter
Required

0
Reported

90
Required Reported Required

ttt
Reported

areal weight (oz/yd2) yarns per inch Volume fraction

57.2 110.4 43.2

12.5 24 7.5

12.6 24.4 9.4

57.2 110 34.6

4.5 8.3 3.3

4.5 6 2.7

Measuring the Weave Angle

9
Sample 1 2 Measured angle 9.0 22.5 Predicted angle 14.4 22.7

22.5

Examining Volume Fraction from Input Parameters

Evaluating Sample 2:
6 2 oz 10 in lb yd 6 ypi = wz 2 cos (22.5) 11.8 lbs 16 oz 36 in yd

w = 1.59+57.22+12.45 = 71.26 oz/yd2

Vf .064
lbs in
3

36 in 2 16 oz = 71.26 oz .100 in 2 yd lb yd

Vf = 53.7%
It was calculated that 74.3 oz/yd2 was needed to meet the 56% volume fraction specified

Example
6 ends per inch, 6 picks per inch, 4 picks thick 12K AS-4 yarns long. & fill, 6K weavers, no surface weavers Weaver yarn ratio - rise/run =tan(w) ar Thickness = 0.25 inch All warp slots filled aspect ratio = (np mp)/t

Effect of Weave yarn ratio on Fiber Volume Fraction

0.75 0.7 0.65 Fiber Volume Fraction 4 epi 6 epi

0.6
0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4

0.35
0.3 0.25

6 8 Weave Angle Ratio

10

12

14

Effect of Weave Yarn Ratio on Weave Angle

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Weave Angle (deg)

4 ppi 6 ppi

10

12

14

Weave Angle Ratio

Effect of Weave Angle on Distribution

Based on varying weave yarn ratio only

0.8 0.7 0.6
Percent longitudinal
Percent weaver Percent fill

Distribution Ratio

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Weave Angle (deg)

Effect of picks per inch on Fiber Volume Fraction

0.45 0.4 Fiber Volume Fraction

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

8
Picks per inch

10

12

14

16

Effect of picks per inch on Weave angle

45 40 35 Weave Angle (deg)

30
25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 Picks per inch 10 12 14 16

Effect of Weave Angle on Distribution

Based on varying ppi only

0.8
0.7 0.6
Percent longitudinal Percent weaver Percent fill

Distribution Ratio

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Weave Angle (deg)

Production of Complex Shaped Weaves

Complex shape - complex, but uniform section Very complex shape - complex, nonuniform section

Production of Complex Shaped Weaves

Consider section as consisting of rectangular pieces Develop weave parameters for each piece Develop interconnection paths

Production of Very Complex Shaped Weaves

Decompose part into rectangular and shell sections Consider impact of cutting yarns Consider "folding" type operations

Ideal vs. Actual Geometry

Bad Control Parameters

Bad Control Parameters

Bad scan of image Mistake in keying of "dots and spots" Slipped card/chain at pick insertion failure

Compression Induced Errors

RTM & Handling Induced Errors